Chapter 2 Theories (Part 1)

Europe in the late Middle Ages

Little ones were tended to until the age of around 7

Deemed age of reason

Children were viewed as little adults

Childhood not viewed as a distinct period

John Locke (1632-1704)

Tabula rasa or “blank slate”

Children entirely shaped by their experiences as they grow up

Precursor of behaviorism

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Noble savages

Children born with innate sense of right and wrong

Growth in distinct stages

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

• Published a biographical sketch of his infant son

• At that point, people began to recognize the scientific value of writing down details of infant development

G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)

Was the first to systematically use questionnaires to explore children’s development

Around the same time, laws were gradually introduced to protect child factory workers and compulsory schooling was introduced

Transition to modern views

Adult labor pool increased, children no longer needed as inexpensive labor source

Child labor laws passed

Universal education began

Theories

Help us explain and understand what we see

Guide thinking and behavior

Help people understand their world, predict future events, and feel in control of their lives

Lay theories

Beliefs from individuals with no background in child development

Scientific theories

Sets of principles that describe phenomena, explain them, and make predictions

Need to be testable

• Need to be able to make a prediction about the relationships between different variables you intend to study

Hypothesis

Testable prediction about the relationship between at least two variables

The steps of the scientific method

1. Identify questions of interest

2. Formulate an explanation

   1. Specify a theory

   2. Develop a hypothesis

3. Carry out research

   1. Operationalize hypothesis

   2. Select a research method

   3. Collect the data

   4. Analyze the data

Correlational studies

Test the relationship between two factors

Proves nothing about causality

Correlation coefficient

• Strength and direction of relationship between two factors

• Ranges from +1.0 to -1.0

Correlation and aggression

• Viewing television programs with high levels of aggression is correlated with actual aggression in children

  • Choosing to watch TV programs with high aggressive content > High viewer aggression

  • High viewer aggression > Choosing to watch television programs with high aggressive content

  • Socioeconomic status > High viewer aggression and/or choosing to watch television programs with high aggressive content

Naturalistic observation

Observation without intervention in the situation

Children in natural habitat

Many factors cannot be controlled

Ethnography

From the field of anthropology

Investigate cultural questions

Case Studies

Extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals

Survey Research

Questions about attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic

People may not be willing to admit the truth

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Measures brain activity

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scan

Shows structure of brain

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Scan

3D image of brain activity

Experimental Research

Discover causal relationships

Variables are systematically changed to see if change has an effect (treatment)

Participants are also called subjects

You compare the consequences of different treatments

Designing Experiments

• Variables are measurable characteristics that change

• Independent Variable

  • The variable that researchers manipulate

• Dependent Variable

  • The variable that is measured and expected to change as a result of the experimental manipulation

Random Assignment

Sample: Group of participants

Random assignment of participants: By chance

Ensure that relevant characteristics of participants are evenly distributed across groups

Setting

Field study: Naturally occurring setting

Laboratory study: Controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant

Theoretical Research

Test a hypothesis and expand scientific knowledge

Applied Research

Provide practical solutions to immediate problems

Measuring change

Longitudinal, cross-sectional, sequential

Longitudinal Studies

Variables are measured more than once

Great time investment

Participant drop out

Bias: Participants become test-wise

Cross-Sectional Studies

Different age groups at the same point in time

Information about differences in development among different age groups

Quicker

Effects may due to cohort instead of age

Selective dropout

Sequential Studies

Combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional studies

Examines number of different age groups at several points in time

Evaluating theories and research part 1

No one theory or approach is accepted by all and has no critics

Each approach focuses on different aspects of development

Evaluating theories and research part 2

People have agendas, and may not know what they are talking about

Check the source (publisher)

Check the author (Where do they work? What’s their experience?)

Does the information come from a scientific study? Is it someone’s opinion?

Take culture into account

The majority isn’t always right

Psychodynamic Approaches

Behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts

Inner force influence behavior throughout the life span

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Physician in Vienna

Believed that his patients’ personality as well as problems could be traced early childhood experiences

Psychoanalytic Theory

Human behavior and personality are rooted in unconscious thoughts, drives, and desires

3 Parts of Personality

• Id

  • Our instincts, which are present from the day we are born

  • Drives for aggression, hunger and thirst, sex, etc.

  • Main goal is to satisfy our desires

• Superego

  • Values we learn from parents, teachers, and society

  • Acts as our conscience

• Ego

  • Fulfill desires in a realistic way

  • Mediates between the id and superego

Examples of Freud’s 3 Personalities

Id - I want to do that now!

Ego - Maybe we can compromise

Superego - It is not right to do that

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

Series of 5 psychosexual stages

Each stage focuses on a particular body area that is a source of frustration and pleasure (mouth > anus > genitals)

If needs are not met or are overindulged: fixation. Person may not move on

Critics of Freud’s Theory

Argued he overemphasized the role of sexual instincts in development

Many parts of his theory cannot be scientifically tested

However, Freud was the one to first bring attention to the importance of unconscious processes in our mind

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Influenced by Freud’s ideas

Practiced as a child analyst in Boston after immigrating from Germany

Differences to Freud’s theory (Erikson)

Behavior is driven by relationships, need to interact with others

Freud thought behavior was driven by sexual desires

Stages continue into adulthood (Erikson)

Descriptions of Erikson’s Theory

Emphasis on social interactions

8 distinct stages

Each stage presents a crisis or conflict that the individual must address or resolve

Critics of Erikson’s Theory

Not enough attention to the influence of emotional and cognitive factors

Vague and hard to test scientifically

Focuses on male development

Important: View that development continues throughout the life span