1.2 Classical Civilizations (c. 2000 BCE – 500 CE)

Israelite Covenant

Divine agreement establishing Israel's special relationship and moral obligations

Davidic Monarchy

Israelite kingdom under David and Solomon symbolizing united national authority

Babylonian Exile

Forced Judean deportation to Babylon after Jerusalem's destruction in 586 BCE

Second Temple

Rebuilt Jerusalem Temple upon return from exile shaping Jewish religious identity

Cyrus the Great

Persian ruler who liberated Jews and founded Achaemenid imperial administration

Zoroastrianism

Ancient Persian religion emphasizing cosmic dualism and ethical choice between good

Royal Road

Extensive Persian highway network facilitating rapid communication and administrative control

Polis

Independent Greek city-state combining political community with religious and social functions

Athenian Democracy

Athenian system granting male citizens equal political participation and decision-making

Hellenistic Era

Period of Greek cultural spread blending eastern and western traditions broadly

Twelve Tables

Rome's earliest codified laws establishing legal transparency and citizen rights

Aqueduct

Engineered Roman water channel delivering fresh water across varied city landscapes

Christianization

Gradual adoption of Christianity as Roman Empire's dominant religion transforming society

Silk Road

Transcontinental trade routes connecting China, Central Asia, and Mediterranean civilizations

Covenant

Divine agreement defining relationship and obligations between Israel and Yahweh.

Mosaic Covenant

Sinai-based law code establishing Israel’s communal ethics and legal framework.

Ark of the Covenant

Sacred chest housing stone tablets symbolizing divine presence among Israelites.

Davidic Covenant

Divine promise ensuring David’s descendants would rule Israel perpetually under Yahweh.

United Monarchy

Period of centralized rule under Saul, David, and Solomon’s unified Israel state.

Solomon’s Temple

First permanent sanctuary in Jerusalem housing Yahweh’s presence and cultic rituals.

Divided Monarchy

Political split into northern Israel and southern Judah after Solomon’s reign.

Babylonian Exile

Forced deportation of Judeans to Babylon following Jerusalem’s destruction in 586 BCE.

Second Isaiah

Anonymous exilic prophet comforting captives and promising Yahweh’s imminent restoration.

Cyrus the Great

Persian king whose decree allowed Jews to return and rebuild Temple.

Second Temple

Reconstructed Jerusalem sanctuary completed in 516 BCE under Persian authorization.

Ezra

Scribe-priest who led Torah readings and religious reforms upon returning exiles.

Nehemiah

Cupbearer-turned-governor who rebuilt Jerusalem’s walls and enforced social reforms.

Achaemenid Empire

First Persian dynasty uniting territories from India to the Mediterranean under one ruler.

Satrap

Semi‐autonomous provincial governor responsible for administration, justice, and tribute collection.

Satrapy

Administrative province within the Persian Empire delineated by geography and economic output.

Royal Inspectors

Cloaked envoys known as the “King’s Eyes and Ears” ensuring satrapal loyalty and fairness.

Aramaic

Lingua franca adopted for imperial correspondence and record‐keeping across multilingual satrapies.

Darius I

Persian king (522–486 BCE) who reorganized administration and expanded the Royal Road network.

Royal Road

2,700 km highway linking Susa to Sardis for rapid communication and commerce.

Zoroastrianism

Religion emphasizing cosmic dualism between asha (order) and druj (chaos).

Ahura Mazda

Supreme Zoroastrian deity embodying truth, light, and creative order.

Angra Mainyu

Destructive spirit opposing Ahura Mazda in the moral struggle of the universe.

Qanat

Subterranean aqueduct system transporting groundwater to arid plains for agriculture.

Immortals

Elite standing force of ten thousand soldiers serving as royal guard and rapid army core.

Persepolis

Ceremonial capital where tribute-bearing delegations showcased the empire’s diversity.

Nowruz

Zoroastrian New Year festival symbolizing renewal and royal generosity across the empire.

Acropolis

Elevated citadel in Greek polis housing temples and serving defensive stronghold.

Agora

Open marketplace and civic space central to political, economic, social activities.

Citizenship

Legal status granting political rights and communal responsibilities to adult male Athenians.

Democracy

System of governance where eligible citizens directly participate in decision-making assemblies and votes.

Pericles

Influential Athenian statesman who oversaw Periclean building projects and democratic reforms.

Socrates

Classical Greek philosopher advocating ethical inquiry through dialectical questioning and introspection.

Plato

Student of Socrates who founded the Academy and wrote dialogues exploring ideal forms.

Aristotle

Plato’s student whose empirical observations and classifications underpinned numerous scientific, philosophical systems.

Alexander the Great

Macedonian king whose conquests spread Greek culture across Egypt, Persia, and India.

Koine Greek

Common dialect that facilitated communication and literature across Hellenistic kingdoms.

Alexandria

Egyptian metropolis founded by Alexander, famed for library and lighthouse. Major Hellenistic city boasting a famous library and museum.

Stoicism

Hellenistic philosophical school teaching virtue attained through reason and acceptance of fate.

Epicureanism

Philosophical system advocating pleasure as highest good achieved through moderation and friendship.

Roman Republic

Constitutional era with consuls, Senate, and assemblies balancing aristocratic and popular power.

Twelve Tables

Earliest codification of Roman law ensuring public access to legal standards and processes.

Punic Wars

Series of three conflicts (264–146 BCE) between Rome and Carthage for Mediterranean dominance.

Caesar’s Rubicon

Caesar’s 49 BCE crossing of the Rubicon River signaling civil war and Republican collapse.

Principate

Augustus’s imperial system retaining republican offices while concentrating power in the emperor.

Pax Romana

Two-century span of relative peace and stability across the Roman Empire (27 BCE–180 CE).

Aqueduct

Engineered conduit delivering water from distant sources to urban centers via gravity flow.

Cursus Publicus

Imperial courier service using roads and waystations for rapid communication.

Edict of Milan

313 CE decree granting religious toleration and legal status to Christianity in the Empire.

Constantine the Great

Emperor (306–337 CE) who legalized Christianity and founded Constantinople.

Theodosius I

Emperor (379–395 CE) who made Christianity state religion and suppressed pagan cults.

Corpus Juris Civilis

Justinian’s 6th-century codification of Roman law preserving legal principles for later Europe.

Fall of Rome

Deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476 CE marking the end of the western Roman Empire.

Hoplite

Citizen-soldier armed with spear and shield forming phalanx formation.

Phalanx

Dense infantry formation with overlapping shields and forward-pointing spears.

Tyranny

One-man rule often instituted by popular support overturning aristocracy.

Ekklesia

Athenian assembly of citizens debating policies and passing decrees.

Boule

Council of 500 citizens preparing legislative proposals for the assembly.

Dikasteria

Popular courts where citizen-jurors adjudicated legal disputes and trials.

Socratic method

Dialectical questioning method fostering philosophical critical thinking and self-examination.

Plato’s Academy

Plato's school for philosophical, mathematical, and political studies near Athens.

Lyceum

Aristotle's institution emphasizing empirical research, classification, and philosophical inquiry.

Hellenistic kingdoms

Successor states dividing Alexander's empire; Ptolemaic, Seleucid, Antigonid realms.

Syncretism

Blending Greek and indigenous religious, artistic, and philosophical traditions.

Pentacosiomedimni

Fourth-century wealth class producing ≥500 medimnoi of produce annually.

Hippeis

Second-richest class obligated to serve as cavalry in Athenian army.

Zeugitai

Third class of small landowners serving as hoplites in the phalanx formation.

Thetes

Poorest class of citizens performing basic labor and serving as rowers in navy.

Areopagus

Aristocratic council overseeing homicide cases and safeguarding constitutional norms.

Ostracism

Athens’ tenth-century BCE practice exiling dangerous individuals for ten years.

Elenchus

Socratic dialectical technique exposing contradictions to stimulate self-examination.

Forms

Plato’s transcendent ideals—like Beauty or Justice—underlying sensible reality.

Dialektikē

Plato’s method of rigorous dialogue aimed at ascending to knowledge of Forms.

Organon

Aristotle’s corpus on logic establishing principles of valid reasoning and syllogism.

Peripatos

Walking courses at the Lyceum where Aristotle taught and students observed nature.

Koine

Greek dialect that emerged after Alexander for administration and intercultural communication.

Diolkos

Paved overland ship trackway across the Corinthian Isthmus saving maritime travel time.

Via Egnatia

Roman-built road in Thrace spanning from Dyrrachium to Byzantium across Macedonia.

Alexandria Library

Royal research institution housing hundreds of thousands of scrolls for scholarship.