AQA A-Level Psychology: Approaches

Introspection

First attempt to examine one's own thought processes

Standardised instructions

The instructions given to each participant are kept identical - to help prevent experimenter bias.

When was Wundt's lab established?

1879

Genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

Phenotype

The set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Concordance rates - MZ

100%

Concordance rates - DZ

50%

Genetic Tests

reveals an individuals genotype, but will only show whether a person has predispositions to developing a specific conditions

Evolution

Genes have adapted to become useful to our survival and are passed onto offspring

Nervous System

System of nerves which allows you to register touch, move, breathe, feel and think. Made up of neurons

Central Nervous System (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord

Neurochemistry

Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning

Nuerotransmitters

Chemical messengers, across the synapse, bind with receptors

BA: Supporting Evidence (Strength)

Lots of supporting evidence; supports the assumption that genetics are involved in causes of behaviour because when there is a higher proportion of genes shared, the disorder is MORE likely

BA: Practical Applications (Strength)

Real-life applications to support the approach. This means that there is evidence for the biological basis of some disorders.

BA: Correlational Data (Weakness)

Correlation between neurotransmitter levels and mental disorders. This means it is only a relationship. Cannot be concluded that neurotransmitter levels cause the behaviour.

BA: Contradictory Evidence (Weakness)

Concordance rates in twin studies are never 100%. This suggests that behaviour is not purely genetic. Approach fails to recognise the role of the environment on behaviour.

BA: Deterministic View (Weakness)

Suggests no conscious control over human behaviour. This means that individuals do not have free will over their behaviour.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

learning occurs through the pairing of a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned response that produces an automatic response.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

assumes that behaviour is based on learning through consequence.

3 Consequences (OC)

1) Positive Reinforcement - behaviour is MORE LIKELY to occur due to positive consequences

2) Negative Reinforcement - behaviour is MORE LIKELY to occur due to negative consequences

3) Punishment - behaviour is LESS LIKELY to occur because of the negative consequences

variable-ratio schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

BEA: Scientific Methods (Strength)

Focuses on observable behaviour within controlled settings. This means it was an influential approach in the development of psychology as a science.

BEA: Real-life Applications (Strength)

Principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours. This means the approach has led to therapies to treat disorders.

BEA: Use of Animal Research (Weakness)

Lack of validity due to differences in physiology/brain structure. This means findings may not generalise to humans as thought processes are underestimated

BEA: Lack of Biology (Weakness)

Emphasis is on environmental factors affecting behaviour. This means it is not a complete approach

BEA: Deterministic Approach (Weakness)

Emphasis on environmental factors affecting behaviour. This means the approach views free will as an 'illusion'. Suggests no conscious control over behaviour.

Social Learning Theory

Bandura believed people learnt behaviour in a social context through observation of other people and the reinforcement or punishment they receive.

Stages of Social Learning Theory

Identification

Modelling

Vicarious Reinforcement

Identification

Observer associates themselves with a role model because they idolises them and their behaviour

Modelling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour

Vicarious Reinforcement

Imitation is more likely to occur if the model is positively reinforced for their behaviour

Mediational Processes

Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behaviour.

Retention: How well the behaviour is remembered

Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behaviour that the model has just demonstrated

Motivation: The will to perform the behaviour.

SLT: Supporting Evidence (Strength)

Supporting evidence from controlled research that demonstrates social learning occuring

SLT: Focus on Cognitive Processes (Strength)

Emphasises role of mediational processes. This means the approach suggests people have more free will over their behaviour.

SLT: Cultural Differences Accounted For (Strength)

Explains differences observed across different cultures. This adds credibility to the theory as an explanation of human behaviour.

SLT: Unrealistic Evidence (Weakness)

Lacks ecological validity due to the controlled environment. This limits the conclusions that can be drawn about social learning in the real-world

SLT: Biological Roles Ignored (Weakness)

Emphasises environmental impact. Doesn't account for biological factors eg. gender difference. This means it is not a complete explanation for behaviour.

Biological Approach: Key Assumptions

-Everything psychological is at first biological

-Behaviour originates from biological structures: genes, nervous system and neuroochemistry

-The mind is within the brain so all behaviour has a physical basis

Learning Approach: Key Assumptions

-Behaviour is learnt from experience and is not inherited

-It is valid to study animals as the same principles apply to humans and non-human animals

-Only observable behaviour should be studied

Cognitive Approach: Key Assumptions

-To explain behaviour we must refer to thought processes

-Internal Mental Processes such as memory, perception and thinking can be studied scientifically by making inferences about the mind based on people's behaviour

Internal Mental Processes

'Private' operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response.

Inferences

A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning

Schema

a concept or framework that organises and interprets information quickly

Schemas are unchanging mental frameworks

Expectations and beliefs that have developed through experience and will influence cognitive processing.

Schemas are useful because

-People are able to respond to appropriately due to the predictions our schemas make based on past real-life experiences.

-Also enable rapid predictions and are seen as mental short-cuts.

Schemas are not useful because

-can lead to negative interpretations of themselves or others

-can also lead to perceptual errors

Theoretical Models

In cognitive psychology, models are simplified, usually pictorial, representations of a particular mental process based on current research evidence.

Information Processing Model

model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way a computer processes memory in a series of three stages

Computational Models

models of cognition that are programmed on computers; output of the programs is compared to human performance

Cognitive Neuroscience

A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity.

CA: Supporting evidence uses scientific and objective methods (Strength)

This approach uses highly controlled lab exp. to allow psychologists to be confident about their findings. This means that the study of the mind has become a credible scientific discipline.

CA: Can be applied to everyday life (Strength)

The approach has been applied to a wide range of contexts. This means that the approach has many real-world applications.

CA: Less deterministic (Strength)

The cognitive approach assumes that an individual has conscious control over the way they think. This means individuals can be accountable for their behaviour and have the power to change their thoughts, which seems more reasonable than other strongly deterministic approaches eg. biological

CA: Research Lacks Validity (Weakness)

The use of lab research can be said to be artificial due to the context and the type of task performed. This means that it lacks external validity as the thought processes measured may not be a true representation of everyday experiences.

CA: Oversimplifies complex processes (machine reductionism) (Weakness)

The comparison of the mind to a computer means that complex processes are oversimplified and aspects such as emotions are often overlooked. This means that it is not a complete approach to understanding behaviour

Psychodynamic Approach: Key Assumptions

-The origins of behaviour are within the unconscious mind

-Instincts/drives motivate behaviour

-Early childhood experiences influence later behaviour

Role of the Unconscious

the part of the mind that we are unaware of but that influences behaviour

Tripartite Structure of the Personality

id, ego, superego

Id

Unconscious part of the mind. Irrational and selfish, dealing with feelings and needs. Seeks pleasure and does not care about reality. Demands immediate gratification. Develops from birth to 18 months.

Super Ego

Unconscious part of the mind. Operates on the 'morality principle', acting as a conscience, dictating what is right from wrong based on parental societal values. The superego's function is to control the Id's impulses. Formed between 3-6 years.

Ego

the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restrictions on the innate pleasure-seeking drives of the id. The Ego considers social norms and rules in deciding how to behave. Formed between 18 months and 3 years.

Defence Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage the conflict between the id and the superego.

Repression

keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

Denial

refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities

Displacement

expressing feelings that would be threatening if directed at the real target onto a less threatening substitute target

Psychosexual Stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

Oral

Pleasure centres on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing

Formed at age 0-18 months

Oral Influence on Behaviour

More likely to chew on pens, bite their fingernails and smoke

Anal

(18-36 months) pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control

Anal Influence on Behaviour

More likely to display personality characteristics like being very organised, neat and reluctant to spend money

Phallic

3-6 Years

Pleasure is gained through the genitals

Oedipus Complex (boys) - sexual feelings towards mother and experiences castration anxiety.

Electra Complex (girls) - sexual feelings towards father and experiences penis envy

Phallic Influence on Behaviour

Homosexuality

Latency

Sexual energy is displaced throughout the body, calm time ind development and no conflicts to work through.

Latency Influence on Behaviour

No fixation occurs and no effect on adult personality

Genital

Pleasure is gained through genitals again. Remains this way for life.

Genital Influence on Behaviour

No fixation occurs and no effect on adult personality

PA: Supported by Case Studies (Strength)

Freud used cases studies to support his ideas such as 'Little Hans'. This shows that there is evidence to support Freud's ideas.

PA: Practical Application (Strength)

Freud's ideas led to the development of psychotherapy. This shows that the approach has used in the real world as some patients report the technique to be effective.

PA: Evidence uses Case Studies (Weaknesses)

The evidence lacks population validity as Freud based his theory on observations of middle-classed people and case studies only represent one individual. This means it is difficult to generalise from this sample to other people.

PA: Ideas Cannot Be Tested Scientifically (Weaknesses)

The Id, Ego and Superego are abstract concepts that cannot be measured. This means that there is a lack of objective evidence to support the theory.

PA: Too Deterministic (Weaknesses)

The approach has been criticised for suggesting that people are prisoners of their childhood experiences, unable to escape them and saying their lives will be determined by them. This means that individuals do not have free will or choice in their behaviour.

Humanistic Approach: Key Assumptions

-Every individual is unique. Generalisations between people should not be made

-Everyone has free will - ability to choose what they do

-People should be viewed holistically

-Scientific methods should not be used to study behaviour as humans are subjective

Self-Actualisation

a sense of self-fulfilment reached by feeling enriched and developed by what one has learned and achieved

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

physiological needs, safety, love/belonging, self esteem, self-actualisation

Focus on The Self

3 Selves to achieve self-actualisation need to be congruent (the same or very similar)

1. The Self-Concept

2. The Ideal Self

3. The Real Self

Self Concept

The way a person sees themselves

Ideal Self

The self a person wishes to be

Real Self

The way a person actually is

Unconditional Positive Regard

When a person is loved for who they are by someone else. This needs to be met in order to achieve congruence.

Conditions of Worth

the conditions a person feels they must meet in order to feel loved by another. If these conditions are felt they will not have unconditional positive regard and therefore cannot be congruent.

Counselling Psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. Therapist encourages unconditional positive regard and allows for client to be honest and real barriers to becoming congruent.

HA: Less Deterministic (Strength)

Humanistic psychology allows for personal development and considers free will in behaviour. This means that individuals have the power to change their future.

HA: Practical Applications (Strength)

Humanistic psychology has led to the development of therapy. This shows that the approach has uses in the real-world and leads to an improvement in a person's life

HA: Ideas Cannot Be Scientifically Tested (Weakness)

Humanists believe it is inappropriate to study humans in a scientific way and make generalisations as we are all unique. This means that there us a lack of objective evidence to support the theory as the concepts used are abstract.

HA: The Approach is Subjective (Weakness)

The subjective experience of the individual is difficult to test. This also means that there is a lack of objective evidence to support the theory.

HA: Culturally Bound Theory (Weakness)

The theory has been criticised for only explaining behaviour in individualist cultures. This means it has limited explanatory power in collectivist cultures.