PSYCH Exam 1 Review

Covers chapters 1, 2, 11.2, 11.3, 6, 10, 14.5

What is the definition of psychology?

The scientific study of the mind and behavior.

What is a hypothesis?

A tentative explanation proposed by a researcher to explain a phenomenon, which must be testable and perceivable.

What is a scientific theory?

A broad explanation (or group of explanations) for an aspect of the natural world that is consistently supported by evidence over time.

What does it mean for psychological science to be empirical?

It relies on an empirical method—acquiring knowledge through direct observation and experimentation rather than logical argument or authority alone.

How do psychologists study unobservable mental processes?

Indirectly, by measuring observable behaviors, biological indicators, and self-reports to make inferences about the mind.

When did psychology become recognized as its own academic discipline, and what was it considered before?

In the late 1800s. Before then, the workings of the mind were studied under philosophy.

Why is psychology considered both a natural science and a social science?

It is a natural science because behavior has biological roots, and a social science because behavior is shaped by interactions with others.

What is critical thinking in the context of psychology?

The active application of a set of skills to understand, evaluate, and assess the reliability and usefulness of information.

What key habits or skills are involved in critical thinking?

Maintaining skepticism, recognizing internal biases, using logical thinking, asking appropriate questions, and making observations.

What three factors interact to shape an individual's behavior and identity?

Biology, environment, and personal experiences.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)

German scientist widely credited as one of the founders of psychology as a distinct scientific discipline; established the first psychology lab in 1879.

Significance of 1879

The year Wilhelm Wundt established the first formal psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig.

Principles of Physiological Psychology (1873)

Wundt’s landmark book that framed psychology as the scientific study of conscious experience.

Introspection (Internal Perception)

A process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible; used by Wundt.

Voluntarism

Wundt's belief that people have free will and should know the intentions of a psychological experiment in which they participate.

Structuralism

Formulated by Edward Titchener; focused on identifying the individual component contents of mental processes rather than their function.

Edward Titchener

Student of Wilhelm Wundt who developed the school of thought known as Structuralism.

William James (1842–1910)

First American psychologist; key founder of functionalism who accepted Darwin’s theory of evolution as an explanation of behavior.

Functionalism

School of psychology that focused on how mental activities and behaviors help an organism fit into and adapt to its environment.

Structuralism vs. Functionalism

Structuralism focuses on understanding the basic elements of the mind through introspection, while functionalism emphasizes the purpose and utility of mental processes in helping individuals adapt to their environments.

Aspect	Structuralism	Functionalism
Main Focus	Analyzes the structure of the mind by breaking down mental processes into their basic elements.	Examines the purpose and utility of mental processes, emphasizing how they help individuals adapt to their environments.
Methodology	Introspection	Diverse methods (observations, experiments)
Key Questions	What are the basic elements of consciousness?	How do mental processes help us adapt?
Examples	Analyzing taste sensations	Studying decision-making in food choices

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)

Austrian neurologist who founded psychoanalytic theory, focusing on the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Perspective dominating clinical psychology for decades that focuses on the role of the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences in shaping behavior.

Methods to access the unconscious

According to Freud: dream analysis, word association (first words that come to mind), and slips of the tongue.

Hysteria

An ancient diagnostic label for disorders (primarily in women) with emotional and physical symptoms having no apparent physical cause; fascinated Freud.

Drew Westen's defense of Freud

Drew Westen argues that many criticisms of Freud's ideas unfairly target outdated versions of psychoanalytic theory and overlook later developments and empirical support for core concepts like the role of childhood experiences and unconscious mental processes.

Gestalt Psychology

School of thought founded by Wertheimer, Koffka, and Köhler proposing that sensory experience is perceived as a unified whole rather than a sum of parts.

Gestalt founders

Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler—German psychologists who immigrated to the US to escape Nazi Germany.

Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning through his research on the salivation reflex in dogs.

• Initial Observation: While studying digestion, Pavlov noticed that dogs began to salivate not just when food was presented, but also when they saw the lab technician who fed them.

• Controlled Experiment: To test his hypothesis, Pavlov paired a neutral stimulus (like a bell) with the presentation of food. After repeated pairings, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone.

• Measurement: Pavlov used a special apparatus to measure the dogs' salivation, allowing for precise data collection.

Conditioned Reflex

A form of learning (classical conditioning) where an organism responds to a neutral stimulus after it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

John B. Watson (1878–1958)

American psychologist who founded Behaviorism, shifting psychology’s focus away from the unobservable mind to observable behavior.

• Experiment Setup

  • Subject: A nine-month-old infant, referred to as "Little Albert."

  • Procedure:

    • Albert was initially exposed to a white rat without any fear.

    • Each time he touched the rat, a loud noise was made by striking a steel bar with a hammer.

    • This pairing of the rat with the loud noise was intended to condition Albert to fear the rat.

  Results

  • Conditioning: By the end of the experiment, Albert displayed fear responses to the rat, crying and attempting to crawl away.

  • Generalization: His fear extended to other furry objects, including rabbits, a dog, and even a Santa Claus mask

The Little Albert experiment is a landmark study in psychology, illustrating the principles of classical conditioning and the potential for fear responses to generalize to similar stimuli. However, it also highlights the ethical issues that arise in psychological research, particularly involving vulnerable populations.

Behaviorism

Perspective focused exclusively on observing and controlling behavior, rejecting the study of consciousness as unscientific.

B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

A behaviorist who concentrated on how behavior is affected by its consequences introduced operant conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment.

• He believed that free will is an illusion and argued that behavior is shaped by environmental factors rather than individual choice

• Published a novel, Walden Two

  • Skinner presents a fictional society that applies the principles of operant conditioning to create a harmonious community. The book explores how scientific social planning can enhance happiness and productivity

Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber)

Operant chamber

An isolated chamber with a lever/button delivering positive reinforcement or punishment to study behavior modification in animals

Humanism

Perspective that emerged in opposition to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, emphasizing innate human potential for good, personal control, and free will.

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)

Humanistic psychologist best known for proposing the hierarchy of human needs leading to self-actualization.

Self-Actualization

According to Maslow, the process of achieving one's full potential, located at the highest level of the hierarchy of needs.

Carl Rogers (1902–1987)

Humanistic psychologist who developed client-centered therapy based on unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy.

Client-Centered Therapy

Therapeutic approach created by Rogers where the client takes the lead role, supported by unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy.

Cognitive Revolution

1950s movement that shifted psychology’s focus back to mental functioning, driven by linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science.

Noam Chomsky

Linguist who was highly influential in launching the cognitive revolution by criticizing behaviorism’s short-sighted focus on external behavior.

WEIRD Societies

Acronym for Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic; over-studied populations whose results don't always apply universally.

Multicultural vs. Cross-Cultural Psychology

Multicultural studies diverse ethnic/cultural groups within one country; Cross-cultural compares populations across different countries.

Pioneering Figures in Diversity

Francis Cecil Sumner (1st African American PhD in psych), George I. Sanchez (challenged bias in intelligence testing), Mamie & Kenneth Clark (doll studies used in Brown v. Board), Margaret Floy Washburn (1st woman PhD in psych), Mary Whiton Calkins (denied Harvard PhD due to gender; pioneer memory researcher), Mary Cover Jones (unconditioned fear in Little Peter), Martha Bernal (1st Latina PhD), Inez Beverly Prosser (1st African American woman PhD).

American Psychological Association (APA)

Largest organization of psychologists in the world; mission is to advance and disseminate psychological knowledge for the betterment of people; has 54 divisions.

G. Stanley Hall

G. Stanley Hall (February 1, 1844 – April 24, 1924) was an American psychologist and educator who helped shape early U.S. psychology. He earned the first U.S. Ph.D. in psychology (from Harvard) and served as the first president of the American Psychological Association.

Association for Psychological Science (APS)

Founded in 1988 to advance the scientific orientation of psychology following disagreements between clinical and scientific branches within the APA.

Ethnic and Racial Psychological Organizations

Groups like NLPA, AAPA, ABPsi, and SIP that provide networking, collaboration, and study psychological and social issues within specific communities.

Biopsychology

Subfield exploring how biology (nervous system structure and function) directly influences behavior; often interdisciplinary with neuroscience.

Evolutionary Psychology

Subfield studying the ultimate biological causes of behavior; focuses on how behavior adaptively evolved through natural selection based on historical genetics.

Charles Darwin

Co-discoverer of evolutionary theory; wrote The Descent of Man and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals exploring adaptive behaviors.

David Buss (1989)

Conducted a cross-cultural study across 37 cultures showing evolutionary differences in mate selection: women valued earning potential, men valued youth/attractiveness.

Sensation and Perception

Subfield focusing on physiological sensory systems and the psychological, complex experience of sensory information (influenced by attention, experience, culture).

Cognitive Psychology

Subfield focused on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions (attention, problem solving, language, memory).

Developmental Psychology

Scientific study of physical, cognitive, moral, and social development across the entire lifespan.

Jean Piaget

Developmental psychologist famous for studying cognitive development in children; identified concepts such as object permanence.

Object Permanence

The understanding that physical things continue to exist even if they are hidden from view.

Personality Psychology

Focuses on long-term patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique; shifted from qualitative theories to quantitative trait measurement.

Big Five (Five Factor Model)

Trait theory of personality capturing variations across individuals: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (OCEAN).

Social Psychology

Focuses on how individuals interact with and relate to others, including interpersonal conflict, prejudice, attraction, and behavior in group settings.

Stanley Milgram

Social psychologist famous for his controversial 1961 obedience experiment where participants delivered perceived lethal shocks to confederates when ordered by an authority figure.

Research Confederate

An individual pretending to be a research participant who is actually working for the researcher and following specific instructions.

Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology

Applies psychological principles and research to workplace settings, personnel management, hiring decisions, and organizational structure to improve efficiency.

Health Psychology

Explores how health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors (the biopsychosocial model).

Biopsychosocial Model

Perspective in health psychology asserting that health and illness are determined by an interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors.

Sport and Exercise Psychology

Studies psychological aspects of performance (motivation, anxiety) and mental wellbeing in sports, exercise, and high-demand performance fields (e.g., military, surgery).

Clinical Psychology

Subfield focusing on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic behavior patterns; highly applied.

• Ex: CBT (cognitive behavior therapy),

Counseling Psychology

Branch similar to clinical psychology that focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health outcomes in psychologically healthy individuals.

Forensic Psychology

Branch dealing with psychological questions within the legal/justice system; involves competency assessments, jury selection, and acting as expert witnesses.

PhD in Psychology

Doctor of Philosophy degree in psychology; typically required for tenure

Dissertation

A comprehensive research paper or collection of published articles detailing original research conducted during doctoral training.

Dissertation Defense

An oral presentation and examination before a committee of expert reviewers required before a PhD is awarded.

Academic Faculty Responsibilities

Dividing time among three main duties: teaching, research, and institutional/professional service.

Adjunct Faculty / Instructor

Part

Postdoctoral Training Program

Supervised research training after receiving a PhD to help young scientists expand skills before applying for full

Research

Focused Faculty

Requirements for 2

Year College Faculty

PsyD in Psychology

Doctor of Psychology degree emphasizing practical clinical application and skills rather than research.

PhD vs. PsyD Focus

PhD focuses heavily on scientific research, whereas PsyD focuses primarily on clinical practice and application.

Licensure for Clinical Psychologists

State process requiring supervised hours and passing a state exam to practice independently and use the title.

Clinical Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist Degrees

Clinical psychologists hold a PhD or PsyD, whereas psychiatrists hold a Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree.

Clinical Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist Scope

Psychologists administer tests and conduct therapy; psychiatrists can prescribe medication and conduct therapy.

Average Doctoral Program Duration

5 to 6 years of graduate study.

Careers with a Master's in Psychology

School psychologists, licensed professional counselors, sport psychology specialists, and industrial consultants.

1 Occupation for BA in Psychology

Mid

Careers with a Bachelor's in Psychology

Management, sales, social work, human resources, administrative roles, and healthcare positions.

Forensic Psychologist Role

Applying psychological principles within the legal system during trials, parole hearings, or expert testimony.

Biopsychologist in Industry

Working for pharmaceutical companies to test the efficacy and biological effects of new drugs.

Psychological Content on the MCAT

Includes a dedicated section on the psychological foundations of behavior for prospective medical students.

Psychiatric Social Work / Nursing

Healthcare fields where undergraduate psychology knowledge is applied to assessments and therapy support.

Human Resources (HR) Role

Applying knowledge of human behavior, training, and interpersonal relations in corporate settings.

Doctor of Philosophy Literal Meaning

Refers broadly to learning across liberal arts and sciences, not specifically the study of philosophy.

Doctor of Psychology Abbreviation

PsyD.

Primary Duty Difference in Academic Institutions

The balance between teaching, research, and service varies depending on the type of school.

Empirical Evidence

Grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed consistently regardless of who is observing.

Scientific Method

A circular process where ideas (theories/hypotheses) are tested against empirical observations, which then refine the ideas.

Theory

A well-developed set of ideas proposing an explanation for observed phenomena.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction (often an "if-then" statement) derived from a theory.

Falsifiability

The capacity of a claim or hypothesis to be proven wrong by empirical evidence; essential for scientific validity.

Deductive Reasoning

Top-down process starting with a general theory or hypothesis to reach a specific logical conclusion.

Inductive Reasoning

Bottom-up process using specific real-world observations to construct broad generalizations or theories.