Euthanasia - OCR A-Level Religious Studies - Ethics

What is the context of sanctity of life?

Traditional Christian view that life is sacred. Now sometimes called 'strong' sanctity of life.

How can sanctity of life be explained?

God created life as a gift so only he can end it.

Where in Genesis is sanctity of life suggested and how?

Genesis 1:27 - We are made in God's image, so killing others is wrong.

Where else in the Bible is sanctity of life suggested and how?

1 Corinthians - "The body is a temple of the holy spirit, you do not belong to yourself"

How would some counter the strong sanctity of life view?

Sanctity of Life is only one of the rules/themes in Bible. Jesus heavily emphasised Love & Compassion too

What biblical themes can outweigh the sanctity of life in certain situations?

Love & Compassion

What should be considered in situations where sanctity of life may be outweighed?

All factors i.e. what follows most commandments/God's guidelines

Is it justified to outweigh the sanctity of life with other biblical themes?

Potentially, but all commandments should be followed if possible including 'Thou shalt not murder.

What is Quality of Life?

The quality of balancing happiness over suffering in Life.

What does Singer think about sanctity of life and why?

Opposes - Based on outdated Christian views; killing only wrong as violated interests of being, so if someone has low quality of life and wants to die then may be justifiable

How can non-voluntary euthanasia be justified?

Those who are unable to express a preference but have an interest against unnecessary suffering if quality of life is little to none.

How would Fisher oppose Singer's view?

Quality of Life is a slippery slope - if Euthanasia allowed for clear cases like terminal illness, it could eventually cover other cases

What could occur if euthanasia is extended beyond terminal illness?

Pressure to be euthanised on those who feel like a burden e.g. some in poverty in Canada, 2022

How would Singer respond to Fisher's 'slippery slope' criticism?

Those who receive euthanasia are disproportionately privileged - No evidence of slippery slope, e.g. euthanised babies in Sweden down over time.

Why is Fisher unsuccessful overall at arguing against euthanasia?

He doesn't show it as wrong, rather showing it as needing to be implemented with care.

What is Nozick's view of autonomy?

Absolutist - we own our bodies and can do what we want. If someone wants euthanasia, whatever the reason, it is justified, and anyone can help them. Always morally acceptable.

Why would most people counter Nozick?

There are many ethical dilemmas with allowing anyone to die if they wish.

How did Singer counter Nozick?

A teenager who wants to die after a breakup for short-term reasons. We can predict they'd get over this, however Nozick would justify their death.

How may Nozick's view be a questionable interpretation of autonomy?

Allowing autonomy for any reason would lead to many deaths who would've regretted. Is it even autonomy at that point?

What approach do Mill and Singer take around autonomy and euthanasia?

Consequentialist - Mill argued society will be happiest with the harm principle i.e. do what you want as long as it doesn't harm others, maximising happiness.

Why may Consequentialist autonomy be questionable?

It may cause a slippery slope towards absolutist autonomy, as there is no way to prevent the 'right to die' principle from such if implemented. May result in Nozick's approach.

Why may Consequentialist autonomy maximise happiness?

How can Singer and Mill's views be combined?

With the requirement of rationality - voluntary euthanasia can be good if rationally chosen, preventing a slippery slope from short-term issues that may impair judgement.

How would situation ethics judge euthanasia?

It can be morally good if it maximises agape, but wouldn't be good if it doesn't.

What is an example of situation ethics' application to euthanasia?

It could be acceptable for someone with low quality of life but unacceptable if pressured or if judgement is impaired.

How would Barclay oppose situation ethics' view on euthanasia?

People are not perfectly loving so if given power to judge may be cruel/selfish. Hobbes would agree as love is corrupted by power, therefore it is unreliable to make decisions like euthanasia as could actually not be loving.

How could situation ethics be problematic in application to euthanasia?

Someone may feel it 'loving' to manipulate into/out of euthanasia, or someone may want to end their life out of love, not wanting to be a burden.

In criticism of situation ethics, how will giving us power over euthanasia cause negative impacts?

Giving us autonomy to decide by removing supervision of legalistic laws will corrupt us via granting more power.

What is Natural Law's view on euthanasia?

We should follow the divine law (Bible) and natural law within our nature, which God has designed to know the precepts. Euthanasia violates the precept to 'preserve human life'.

What other Natural Law precept does euthanasia violate and why?

Maintaining an orderly society as sanctity of life undermined. God designed us with potential to be in harmony so failure to follow these precepts could take that away due to living against God, causing social disorder.

What did Mother Teresa say about abortion?

Abortion is the greatest threat to world peace.

What argument did Mother Teresa use against abortion?

If a mother can kill her own child, what is left to stop us killing each other?

How may some Catholics justify passive euthanasia via the doctrine of double effect?

Stopping treatment or giving painkillers to speed up death could be allowed as intention is to ease pain; death may be an unintended side effect.

How can the position of some Catholics allowing passive euthanasia via the doctrine of double effect be criticised?

Death is obviously not an unintended side effect - interior and exterior acts need to be good, and in this case the exterior act is one of killing even if the interior act behind that is to ease suffering.

How may some counter Natural Law's position on situation ethics?

Natural law is outdated and only useful in socioeconomic conditions of medieval society which was stricter and chaotic.

Why was it useful to ban killing in medieval times? (Natural law criticism)

Rules were needed to keep order - people not educated enough to be trusted with freedom. Killing was more common and people had less self-control.

How have conditions changed since medieval times? (Natural Law criticism)

Precepts are no longer useful - society can afford to relax inflexible rules and reinterpret them to fit modern society.

Why may it be reasonable to disregard Natural Law precepts in some situations now? (Natural law criticism)

Precepts not directly in Bible, just an interpretation relative to the time. Not intended for modern society. Aquinas discovered via reason which may be flawed.

How could Aquinas defend against criticisms of Natural Law being outdated?

Outdated does not mean wrong, just as culture has moved on doesn't mean it is right. Democracy would be outdated if Hitler won.

Therefore, precepts are still important including not killing/euthanising.

What is a better version of the 'outdated' criticism of Natural Law?

NL was reaction to conditions of time, not useful now. Aquinas thought discovered via God-given reason, probably just intuiting what was best for society of time. Idea it 'came from God' is flawed.

What is a living will?

A document specifying someone's future care, e.g. to limit life support or not resuscitate

What is Aristotle's chain of being?

Minerals - Plants - Animals - Man- Demons - Angels - God

What distinguishes us from animals?

Reason - we can relate to God and have shared identity

What does the Hippocratic oath state which clearly opposes most forms of euthanasia?

I will not give a lethal drug to anyone if asked nor will I advise on such a plan

In modern medical ethics, how may euthanasia be accepted even with the Hippocratic oath?

By removing life support (passive) if the key goal is to ease suffering and not end a life - "I will go for the benefit of the sick"

What happened and to who in 1997?

Annie Lindsell, fear of death due to MND. Asked high court for doctors to euthanise. Ended up dropping case as doctors would be allowed to administer some life shortening drugs for the sake of removing physical distress.

What was Bacon's view on medical ethics?

Physicians are not only to restore health but to mitigate pain, not only for recovery but also to enable an easy passage

What is a major question about quality of life's validity as a criteria?

Is it too difficult or inexact to judge?

What is Mary Ann Warren's criteria for personhood?

Consciousness, Reasoning, Self-motivated activity, Communication, Self awareness & self-concepts

What is an issue with Mary Ann Warren's personhood criteria?

People with disabilities may not meet every criteria - does that make them less of people?

What is Mill's autonomy quote?

"In what merely concerns himself, his independence is absolute"

What is Hans Kung's view?

The omnibenevolent all-merciful God has left us the responsibility to make choices around our lives and death.

What is a criticism of Catholicism's strict views on euthanasia?

Catholics are people - why should they be deciding on God's behalf what is right or wrong?

As a doctor what did Jack Kevorkian do?

Made all choices at the autonomy/wishes of patient.

What are Glover's factors for Voluntary euthanasia?

Assister should be convinced about situation, assister should think decision is reasonable, Circumstances shouldn't be liable to change

What is Glover's quote on voluntary euthanasia?

"To refuse help is a very serious denial of autonomy over matter of life and death"

What does Gregory Pence say about voluntary euthanasia?

"It isn't wrong to help the dying to die, as they are already dying."

What does Thomas More say about mercy in voluntary euthanasia?

A patient suffering a torturing and lingering pain with no hope of recovery may choose death if life would be miserable

What group argues more legislation and regulation would help voluntary euthanasia be more dignified, safer and honest?

Dignity in Dying

What did Kevorkian advertise?

Death counselling - charged with second degree murder and sentences to 8 years. Questions over whether he genuinely wanted to help people or just wanted test subjects.

What are the three major arguments against voluntary euthanasia?

May lead to involuntary euthanasia like in Nazi Germany, may discourage people from treatment, may change focus of palliative care from comfort to ending life.

Why does Glover reject oppositions to voluntary euthanasia?

Nazi policy was not voluntary euthanasia, it was an extreme sadistic ideology. Other factors like treatment withdrawal and palliative care can be considered side effects and can be minimised by legal protections & guidelines.

What are the issues with being sure of motive for euthanasia?

Is the person in pain or shock? Have they been pressured or feel like a burden? Have they made informed consent? Mental illness?

What are the issues around worries of mistakes for euthanasia?

Could there be a misdiagnosis or wrong advice given? Same principle as death penalty - people are fearful of mistakes. Refusal of V.E. could safeguard against this.

What is one example that could happen if Euthanasia is abused?

Harold Shipman

What is a worry around euthanasia's relation to care?

Could damage culture of care, focus on death and even cause unwanted deaths or impacts on the participating doctor. Reduced respect for life in society?

What happened to Tony Nicklinson?

Had a stroke and went to the high court for euthanasia permission after being left quadriplegic but with a completely healthy brain. Had to communicate with eye movements. High court rejected, so he starved himself to death.

What type of euthanasia was Tony Bland?

Passive, non-voluntary

What did James Rachels say about passive versus active euthanasia?

Passive euthanasia has no moral difference to active euthanasia - if passive is already allowed, we should allow active.

What was Robert Latimer's murder/euthanasia case?

He killed his disabled daughter as wanted to stop her pain, though motives were questioned and sentenced to 10 years

How do synderesis and eudaimonia link to euthanasia?

Euthanasia is not 'avoiding evil' as it is choosing to go against the divine law and take sacred life given by God, thus it is clear euthanasia is going against the telos of eternal happiness and life with god, Eudaimonia.

How does euthanasia relate to secondary precepts?

It is a judgement on a primary precept, specifically preserving life. Euthanasia goes against this - the reason it is wrong is from the secondary precept that euthanasia is against God and our telos as it is violating the precepts.

Would euthanasia be classed as a real or apparent good?

Likely an apparent good as death is still the goal - arguably even if it seems to be good by easing suffering, it does not go towards the telos of eudaimonia and breaks the precepts.

What did Fletcher believe about euthanasia?

President of Euthanasia Society. Quality of life is superior to sanctity of life, and death can be good for those suffering from debilitating illness. We should prioritise our will/autonomy.

What is the Liberal Protestant view on euthanasia from Fletcher's viewpoint?

There is no distinction of our response to suffering animals & humans, and there should be no passive/active euthanasia distinction - result is the same. This extends to disabled children.

What does Fletcher say about 'Putting a Down's baby away'?

It carries no guilt, as true guilt arises from an offence against a person, and a Down is not a person.

How does Euthanasia link to the six propositions?

"Love is the ruling norm" - The most loving choice can replace outdated sanctity of life choices in medical ethics. This may be euthanasia.

"Ends justify means" - The ends are to remove suffering; death is an acceptable way to do this if there is no hope of recovery.

"Love is situational" - Euthanasia, and the best choice, depends on each situation - for example, if someone is pressured or feels like a burden, it may not be the best choice.