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World War I
A war fought from 1914-1918
between the Allied or Entente Powers (Britain, France, Russia, Japan, Serbia, and later Italy, Portugal, Romania, USA, and Greece) against the Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ottomans, and Bulgaria).
The MAIN causes of the war included militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalistic tensions.
The war began with the assassination of Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand.
The fighting on the western front was characterized by trench warfare and other new technologies such as the machine gun, barbed wire, the submarine, aerial warfare, poison gas, and tanks.
On the Eastern Front, temporary Russian advances against Austria-Hungary were followed by military disaster and the Russian Revolution of 1917.
Other than the WEstern and Eastern Fronts, other major theaters of war included the Mesopotamian region, the Italian Peninsula, Africa, and the Pacific.
After approximately 10 million dead and 20 million wounded, the war ended in 1918 with a victory of the Allied Powers and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.
trench warfare
Warfare in which the opposing forces attack and counter attack from a relatively permanent system of trenches protected by barbed wire; a characteristic of World War I.
Soldiers lived, fought, and endured harsh conditions within these trenches, facing constant artillery bombardment, machine gun fire, and chemical warfare.
Trench warfare resulted in a stalemate for much of the war with little territorial gain but enormous cost of human lives.
Easter Rebellion
In 1914, Ireland finally passed the Home Rule Bill, which gave Ireland internal governmental autonomy within Britain.
However, during WWI, this bill was inactive. In Dublin in April 1916, approximately 2,000 members of the Irish Citizen Army took up arms against British rule in Ireland.
On Easter Monday, the Irish Republic was declared with Padraic Pearse as President.
British troops forced them to surrender just five days later. The Easter Rising had little public support at first due to the number of Irishmen serving in the British army during WWI.
However, with the execution and imprisonment of over 2,000 Irish citizens, public opinion shifted and the 1918 election led to an Irish nationalist party winning the majority of seats in Ireland.
Armenian Genocide
The physical annihilation of Armenian Christians living in the Ottoman Empire from 1915-1916.
This occurred during World War I, as the Ottomans feared that the Christian Armenians living within their borders would ally with the Armenians living in the Russian Empire, who were on the opposite side of the war.
The Ottoman Empire, controlled by the Young Turks, desired to solidify their power as Muslim Turks in central and eastern Anatolia by eliminating as many of the 1.5 million Armenians living in the region as possible.
The Ottoman government began consolidating its power by deporting the Armenian population from its northeastern border.
Many facing forced deportation died from starvation, dehydration, exposure, and disease as they fled into the desert of modern-day Syria, Saudi Arabia and Iraq.
This was followed by local massacres as well as the removal and forced conversion of Armenian children.
In total, somewhere between 650,000 and 1.2 million died during the Armenian Genocide.
Russian Revolution of 1917
The overthrow of Nicholas II, the last emperor of Russia, and the start of Bolshevik rule under Vladimir Lenin.
The Revolution occurred in two phases–a liberal revolution in February (old calendar), overthrowing the imperial government, and a socialist Bolshevik revolution in October (old calendar).
In the first revolution, strikes and riots in St. Petersburg led to the abdication of the Romanov tsar after more than 300 years of dynastic rule.
In July 1918, the Bolsheviks murdered Tsar Nicholas II and his family in Yekaterinburg.
Then, the October Revolution was carried through with little bloodshed by the Bolshevik (majority) Party.
The Bolsheviks took control of major cities, adopted a Soviet constitution, and transferred the government from Petersburg to Moscow.
The Russian civil war lasted until 1922, ending with the establishment of the Soviet Union.
Vladimir Lenin
A prominent Russian revolutionary leader (1917-1924) and the founding father of the Soviet Union (1922-1924).
He played a pivotal role in the October Revolution of 1917, which led to the overthrow of the Russian Provisional Government and the establishment of Bolshevik rule.
Lenin's ideology, known as Leninism, advocated for the violent overthrow of capitalism, the establishment of a socialist state, and the dictatorship of the proletariat.
As the leader of the Bolshevik Party, Lenin implemented policies such as nationalization of industry, redistribution of land, and the creation of a one-party state.
Treaty of Versailles
The Paris Peace Conference convened in 1919 in Versailles, just outside Paris.
The purpose of the conference was to establish peace terms after WWI.
It was led by the “Big Four,” France, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Italy, but had nearly 30 nations in attendance.
Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany faced strict punitive measures such as the loss of all overseas colonies, the loss of approximately 10% of its European territory, restrictions on the size of its military, the trial of Kaiser Wilhelm II, and war reparations costing over $30 billion.
France gained the European territories including modern-day Gdansk, a harbor-city, and Saarland, which was rich in coal.
Russia was not in attendance due to the actions of its new Bolshevik government, which pulled out of the war in December 1917 and then published secret agreements of the Allied Powers.
The defeated Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria were also excluded from the conference.
The United States under President Woodrow Wilson desired the creation of a League of Nations, which would be the world’s first worldwide intergovernmental organization designed to maintain world peace.
The League of Nations lasted until the creation of the United Nations (UN) in 1946.
Weimar Republic
The democratic government established in Germany after World War I, lasting from 1919 to 1933.
It faced significant political instability, economic challenges, and ultimately succumbed to the rise of the Nazi Party.
The Weimar Republic implemented progressive reforms but struggled with hyperinflation and political extremism, leading to its eventual collapse.
Great Depression
The Great Depression in Europe refers to a severe economic downturn that occurred in the aftermath of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, which originated in the United States but had far-reaching consequences globally.
Europe experienced widespread unemployment, poverty, and financial instability throughout the 1930s, as international trade and industrial production plummeted.
The collapse of the global economy led to deflation, bank failures, and widespread social upheaval across European countries.
Governments struggled to respond effectively to the crisis, exacerbating political tensions and paving the way for the rise of extremist ideologies and totalitarian regimes in several European nations, ultimately setting the stage for World War II.
Keynesian economics
keynesian economics is an economic theory developed by British economist John Maynard Keynes during the Great Depression.
Keynesian economics advocates for government intervention in the economy to stabilize output and achieve full employment.
It suggests that during economic downturns, the government should increase spending and cut taxes to stimulate demand.
totalitarianism
A state characterized by government control over all aspects of economic, social, political, cultural, and intellectual life;
the subordination of the individual to the state;
and insistence that the masses be actively involved in the regime's goals.
NKVD
“People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs” (NKVD) was the main security and law enforcement agency of the Soviet Union during the Stalinist era.
It was responsible for conducting mass repression, political purges, and enforcing state security through surveillance, censorship, and the use of terror.
The NKVD operated a vast network of prisons, labor camps (Gulags), and secret police forces to suppress dissent and maintain control over the population.
Under Stalin's leadership, the NKVD played a central role in carrying out the Great Purge, which targeted perceived enemies of the state, including political opponents, intellectuals, and ethnic minorities, resulting in millions of arrests, executions, and forced labor sentences.
collectivization
A policy whereby agricultural land and resources are owned and managed collectively, typically by the state or collective farms, rather than by individual farmers.
It was a key component of Soviet economic policy under Joseph Stalin in the 1920s and 1930s.
Collectivization aimed to increase agricultural productivity, consolidate control over the rural population, and facilitate the transition to socialism.
However, it led to widespread resistance, famine, and the disruption of traditional agricultural practices, particularly in the Soviet Union and other communist states.
5-year plan
The concept originated in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin in the late 1920s.
Five-Year Plans set targets for economic growth through means such as industrial production, agriculture, and infrastructure investment.
The Soviet Union implemented several Five-Year Plans (1928–1932), (1932–1937), (1938–1941), and (1945–1950); the first two emphasized collective farming and rapid industrialization, leading to famine such as the Holodomor,
while the second two focused on the production of armaments and military build-up.
Holodomor
A combination of the Ukrainian words for ‘hunger’ and ‘plague’, the Holodomor was a man-made famine that occurred in Soviet Ukraine between 1932 and 1933,
resulting in the deaths of millions of Ukrainians.
It was deliberately orchestrated by the Soviet government under Joseph Stalin as part of a campaign to crush Ukrainian nationalism and resistance to collectivization.
The Holodomor involved the confiscation of grain and food supplies, forced requisitions, and policies that deprived Ukrainians of food, sustenance, and often life.
Great Purges
Also known as the Great Terror, the Great Purges were a series of political repression campaigns initiated by Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union during the late 1930s.
The purges targeted perceived enemies of the state, including political rivals, intellectuals, military officers, and party officials.
Millions of people were arrested, imprisoned, or executed, often on trumped-up charges of sabotage, espionage, or counter-revolutionary activities.
The Great Purges consolidated Stalin's power, eliminated dissent, and instilled fear and obedience within the Soviet population.ion.
gulag
The term "gulag" refers to the system of forced labor camps established by the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin's regime, primarily from the 1930s to the 1950s.
The word "Gulag" itself is an acronym for "Main Administration of Corrective Labor Camps," reflecting its function as a network of prisons and labor camps across the Soviet Union.
These camps were used to imprison and punish political dissidents, perceived enemies of the state, and ordinary citizens who were deemed a threat to the regime.
Conditions within the Gulag were notoriously harsh, with prisoners subjected to extreme cold, inadequate food, forced labor, and brutal treatment by guards.
The Gulag system played a central role in Stalin's campaign of political repression and terror, resulting in the suffering and deaths of millions of people.
fascism
An ideology or movement that exalts the nation (ultranationalism) above the individual and calls for a centralized government with a dictatorial leader,
economic and social regimentation,
and forcible suppression of opposition;
in particular, the ideology of Mussolini's fascist regime in Italy.
Benito Mussolini
An Italian politician and leader of the National Fascist Party, who became Prime Minister and dictator of Italy from 1922 to 1943.
Mussolini established fascism as a political ideology in Italy. He centralized power, suppressed political opposition, and implemented policies aimed at reviving Italy's economy and expanding its territory.
Mussolini's regime emphasized the cult of personality and sought to restore Italy's past glory through militarism and aggressive foreign policies, including the invasion of Ethiopia and alliance with Nazi Germany during World War II.
His rule ended in 1943 when he was deposed and eventually executed by Italian partisans.
Adolf Hitler
The dictator of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, who led the country into World War II and orchestrated the Holocaust.
As the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party), Hitler capitalized on widespread discontent in Germany following World War I, promoting ultranationalism, racism, and antisemitism.
His autobiographical manifesto, "Mein Kampf,” (“My Struggle”) outlines his vision of a racially pure German state, advocates for territorial expansion, and expresses his disdain for democracy, Marxism, and liberalism.
Hitler's regime implemented repressive policies such as the Nuremberg Laws, curtailed civil liberties, and pursued aggressive expansionist goals, which culminated in the annexation of Austria, the occupation of Czechoslovakia, and the invasion of Poland.
His leadership and ideology led to the genocide of six million Jews and millions of other victims deemed undesirable by the Nazi regime.
World War II
A devastating global conflict that spanned from 1939 to 1945 between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and Allied Powers (Britain, Soviet Union, and USA). The war emerged from unresolved tensions following World War I.
Between 1936 and 1939, the build-up to the war included Hitler’s secret rearming of Germany and alliances with Italy’s Mussolini and Japan.
Germany also annexed Austria into the Third Reich and signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact.
In 1939, Germany invaded Poland to divide it between itself and the Soviet Union.
Britain responded with an ultimatum, demanding Germany’s withdrawal from Poland.
When Germany refused to do so, Britain declared war on Germany.
In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic States and attacked Finland.
Northeastern Europe (including Belgium, the Netherlands, and ⅗ of France) fell to Germany.
Pro-Nazi governments in Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Slovakia joined the Axis Powers. In June 1941, Hitler broke his pact with Stalin and invaded the Soviet Union. In December 1941, Japan attacked the US at Pearl Harbor, causing the US to enter the war and fight with the Allies. In Europe, battles at Kursk, Stalingrad, and Normandy shifted the tide of the war to Britain’s favor.
The war ended with Hitler’s suicide in May 1945 and the United States’ atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, inducing Japan’s surrender.
By the end of WWII, there was an incredible number of casualties, including approximately 15 million military, of which 2 million were Soviet prisoners of war, 6 million Jews in the Holocaust, and at least 35 million civilians.
Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact
Signed in 1939, the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was a diplomatic agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union,
which pledged non-aggression between the two powers.
The pact included a secret protocol that delineated spheres of influence in Eastern Europe,
ultimately allowing both countries to pursue their territorial ambitions without interference from one another.
The agreement shocked the international community and paved the way for the outbreak of World War II by removing the threat of a two-front war for Germany.
It was ultimately broken by the Nazis during Operation Barbarossa.
Operation Barbarossa
Operation Barbarossa was the codename for Nazi Germany's massive invasion of the Soviet Union launched in June 1941.
It was the largest military operation in history, involving millions of soldiers and marking a turning point in World War II.
Despite initial successes, including the capture of key cities like Kiev and Smolensk, Operation Barbarossa ultimately faltered due to logistical challenges, harsh weather conditions, and fierce Soviet resistance.
Due to Operation Barbarossa, the Soviets joined WWII on the side of the Allies, contributing significantly to the eventual defeat of Nazi Germany.
blitzkrieg
German term meaning 'lightning war', referring to fast and forceful military tactics used at the start of World War II.
Nuremberg Laws
Enacted by the Nazi regime in 1935,
the Nuremberg Laws were a series of antisemitic legislation that institutionalized racial discrimination and persecution against Jews in Germany.
The laws deprived Jews of their civil rights, prohibited intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews, and segregated Jews from the rest of society.
The Nuremberg Laws laid the legal groundwork for the systematic exclusion and eventual extermination of Jews during the Holocaust.
These laws epitomized the extreme racial ideology of Nazi Germany and remain a symbol of state-sponsored oppression and injustice.
During WWII, many other countries such as Italy, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Croatia had all enacted similar antisemitic laws.
Ghetto
Historically refers to a segregated area where a specific ethnic, racial, or religious group is forced to live.
The term gained prominence during the Holocaust, when the Nazi regime established ghettos in occupied territories of Eastern Europe to confine and isolate Jewish populations.
Ghettos were characterized by overcrowded living conditions, poverty, and limited access to basic necessities.
They served as staging grounds for mass deportations to concentration camps and extermination centers.
The Holocaust
The systematic genocide perpetrated by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II, r
resulting in the extermination of six million Jews, along with millions of other victims, including Romani people, Poles, Soviet prisoners of war, disabled individuals, and political dissidents.
The Holocaust involved the establishment of ghettos, concentration camps, mass shootings, forced labor, and the implementation of the "Final Solution," which aimed at the total annihilation of European Jewry.
The Holocaust stands as one of the darkest chapters in human history and serves as a stark reminder of the consequences of unchecked hatred and bigotry.
Nuremberg Trials
A series of military tribunals held after World War II to prosecute prominent leaders of Nazi Germany for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes against peace.
The trials took place in the city of Nuremberg, Germany, between 1945 and 1949 and were conducted by the Allied powers, including the United States, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union.
The defendants included high-ranking Nazi officials, military commanders, and collaborators who were responsible for orchestrating atrocities such as the Holocaust and aggressive warfare.
The Nuremberg Trials established important precedents in international law, affirming the principle of individual accountability for crimes committed during wartime and laying the groundwork for subsequent tribunals addressing human rights violations and genocide.
Albert Einstein
A renowned physicist whose groundbreaking theories revolutionized our understanding of the universe.
He is best known for his theory of relativity, which fundamentally altered the concepts of space, time, and gravity.
Einstein also made significant contributions to quantum mechanics and the study of the photoelectric effect, earning him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.
Beyond his scientific achievements, Einstein was a vocal advocate for pacifism, civil rights, and international cooperation
Niels Bohr
A Danish physicist whose work laid the foundation for our modern understanding of atomic structure and quantum theory.
He made seminal contributions to the development of the atomic model, proposing the Bohr model of the atom, which introduced the idea of quantized electron orbits.
Bohr's insights into quantum mechanics and the behavior of subatomic particles revolutionized physics and paved the way for subsequent advancements in nuclear physics and quantum theory.
He also played a key role in the Manhattan Project during World War II, contributing to the development of nuclear weapons while advocating for international control of atomic energy.
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