PART ONE : Kennedy and the "New Frontier" - 1960-1963

Why were there concerns about Kennedy’s Catholicism

He could be more faithful to god than the country

Give reasons as to why JFK won the 1960 election.

1) Nixon’s errors

2) Kennedy’s successes

Eisenhower mistakes

4) Other

Why did JKF win the 1960 election - Nixon’s errors?

• Appearance in the TV debate

• Nixon refused to let Eisenhower campaign for him - wanted to prove himself as his own person

• Nixon made his experience of governing central to the campaign

• He rejected Eisenhower’s advice to not engage in TV debates - E said Nixon was already well known so it would be giving JFK free advertising

• Nixon took no action after MLKs arrest

• Nixon promised to campaign in all 50 states leading to his tired appearance in the TV debate

Why did JKF win the 1960 election - JFK’s successes?

• his film star looks & personable character worked in his favour and meant he could turn his youth into an advantage

• addressed his weaknesses in particular his Catholicism - promised a solid commitment to the separation of state & church

• actions after MLKs arrest

• Kennedy focused on how to extend the prosperity of the 50s so everyone benefited whereas Nixon allowed himself to be drawn into the debate instead of focusing on economic achievements during the 50s

• His father helped bankroll his sons campaign and consistently courted the press for him

Why did JKF win the 1960 election - Eisenhower’s mistakes ?

• Nixon warned Ike that huge spending cuts in 1960 would the election campaign but he continued which caused a recession that damaged the Reps popularity

• When he was asked for an example for a major idea of Nixon’s that he had adapted he said if you give me a week i might think of one

• He refused to refute JKF’s claim that there was missile gap in the Soviets favour making the Reps look weak

• He focused more on defending his own presidential record against JFK’s critiques than promoting Nixon’s candidacy

What was one of the biggest factors in deciding the vote

TV

Why did TV watchers prefer Kennedy in the televised debate?

1) Kennedy looked straight at the cameras, Nixon looked sideways at Kennedy and projected shiftiness

2) JFK seemed relaxed with glowing health, Nixon was tired, Sweat streaked his make-up and his eyes were hollow and black ringed

How did Kennedy’s and Nixon’s actions compare over the situation of Martin Luther King Jr’s arrest after participation in an Atlanta sit in in Oct 1960 ?

Nixon - inaction over the arrest

Kennedy - The Kennedy campaign made much of how JFK’s call to MLK Jr’s wife helped secure her husbands release - courted the black vote

How much did Kennedy take the Black vote by ?

70:30

How old was Kennedy when elected president

43

Give 3 ways in which Kennedy was successful at effective marketing in the 1960 election campaign

1) snappy party political broadcasts which used slogans like ‘Kennedy for me’

2) a huge range of merchandise

3) clever photo opportunities - showed Kennedy meeting a range of people and often included his glamorous wife, jackie

What key messages were displayed in his campaign song

Old enough to know, young enough to do

Why was the selection of Johnson as vice president vital

He had political clout in the south so allowed JFK to pick up votes in the South

How many votes did JFK receive to Nixon ? (popular vote)

JFK - 34.2 million

Nixon - 34.1 million

shows the election was very close

What were some of Nixons failures

Not challenging Kennedy on civil rights, not focusing on key battlegrounds, did not exploit Kennedy’s weaknesses

What did the Clean Air Act 1963 do

Regulate air pollution

What did executive order 11063 do

Banned racial discrimination in federally funded housing

What did the Equal Pay Act 1963 do

Illegal to pay men and women differently for the same work

What was Kennedy fearful of that affected civil rights

Southern Democrats

What did Kennedy lower the retirement age to

62

What did Kennedy do for Workers

61- Protected young people from being underpaid

62- Standard working hours and safety

By what % were social security benefits increased by

20%

What did the Peace Corps do

Aid development in poorer countries

Who were Kennedy’s “brightest & best”?

Kennedy’s “brightest & best” refers to Kennedy’s team/cabinet - JFK himself didn’t call his team that but journalist David Halberstam did in 1972.

He called them this as Kennedy unconventionally chose to surround himself with bright academics, intellectuals & leaders of industry like him rather then members of Congress etc.

Who made up Kennedy’s “brightest & best”?

• Lyndon B Johnson

• Dean Rusk

• Robert McNamara

• Bobby Kennedy

• Sargent Shriver 

• McGeorge Bundy

Who was Lyndon B Johnson?

Johnson was Kennedy’s Vice President.

He had be chosen as he acted as a foil to Kennedy to balance the Dem ticket : he was from Texas, had not attended an elite university and had 24 years of congressional experience.

LBJ had the best grasp of congressional politics than anyone else in the Kennedy administration and was a legislative expert.

Who was Dean Rusk?

Dean Rusk was Kennedy’s & later Johnson’s Sec of State.

Rusk had been appointed as he was self-effacing allowing JFK to have personal control over foreign policy which was the aspect of presidency he was most interested in.

He had however had a fractious relationship with Kennedy who felt the state department offered little.

Who was Robert McNamara?

Robert McNamara was Kennedy’s & Johnson’s Defense Secretary.

He had been headhunted by Sergeant Shriver to join Kennedy’s group from his previous role as president of Ford.McNamara also had expertise in statistical analysis and was dynamic, tough-talking & persuasive.

He played such a major part in the escalation in Vietnam that some have called the Vietnam War McNamara’s War. He ended up believing it was unwinnable by 1967 and in his 1995 book that it had been prosecuted unwisely.

Who was Bobby Kennedy?

Robert Kennedy was Kennedy’s Attorney General & younger brother - he also became Johnson’s Attorney General until 1964.

He was a Harvard law graduate who had worked previously as legal assistant to McCarthy and ran Kennedy’s campaign before becoming Attorney General.

Bobby ran for & was elected Senator of New York state (1965-8) before running for president in 1968 with a more liberal view than JFK e.g. in Civil Rights but was assassinated

Who was Sergeant Shriver?

Sergeant Shriver was trained lawyer and also Kennedy’s brother in law and was a part of Kennedy’s circle.

He was the driving force behind the Peace Corps and continued to serve under Lyndon B Johnson as one of the architects of the “war on Poverty.

He later became Ambassador to France (1968-70) and ran as vice presidential candidate in George McGovernis 1972 presidential bid.

Who was McGeorge Bundy?

McGeorge Bundy was Kennedy’s & Johnson’s National Security Adviser.

He was a brilliant academic - former intelligence officer in WW2 & Prof of Gov at Harvard. Bundy was involved in the Bay of Pigs & Cuban Missile Crisis and was known for his role in advocating US involvement in Vietnam to both JFK & Johnson.

What were the criticisms of Kennedy’s “brightest & best”?

• Many people were horrified by the nepotism of Booby Kennedy being Attorney General - Johnson agreed with another Senator that it was disgrace for a kid who’s never practiced sic law to be appointed

• Civil Rights aide Harris Wofford considered these intellectuals too mich like Kennedy - cool, skeptical, pragmatic

• Overall they had little experience in governing and Kennedy didn’t want to seem reliant on Johnson’s legislative expertise

• Compared to Eisenhower’s army command like structure of the White House, Kennedy’s made rapid fire decisions but was also somewhat chaotic worrying Bobby Kennedy

• Their actions in Vietnam were viewed as arrogantly foolish and great errors but they also had successes at home & abroad

What was Flexible response?

Flexible response was Kennedy’s foreign policy for containment.

It’s purpose was to expand the available means of countering communism as Kennedy believed that the communist threat was more diverse than it had ever been.

Why did Kennedy go for Flexible Response instead of something else?

Kennedy believed that the communist threat was more diverse than it had ever been so needed to be prepared for conventional war in Europe etc, USSR nuclear strikes & revolutions in the 3rd world.

Reaction to the new Communist strategies of expansion - Khrushchev also promised that the Soviets would support these revolutions as soon as Kennedy became president

Kennedy also wanted to move away from Eisenhower’s Massive Retaliation as it left the US with very little options if the opponent didn’t back down - humiliation or all-out nuclear war.

What were the main elements of Kennedy’s Flexible Response?

• Increase in conventional forces

• Enlargement of the nuclear arsenal

• Economic aid

• Covert action & negotiation with the USSR

What are some continuations and changes from Eisenhower’s New Look to Kennedy’s Flexible Response?

Continuity :

• Focus on negotiations

• Enlargement of nuclear weapons in Arms Race & Space Race

• Use of the CIA

Change :

• Commitment to both conventional & nuclear forces instead of nuclear forces prioritised above conventional forces

• Increased spending on conventional forces in order to undo Eisenhower’s decrease

• Increased focus on economic aid in containment

• Use of CIA isn’t as central to Kennedy as it was to Eisenhower

How could Kennedy afford to both increase spending on nuclear & conventional forces in Flexible Response?

Kennedy couldn’t necessarily “afford it” but he had different economic policies than Eisenhower meaning he wasn’t aiming for balanced budgets.

He instead believed in more federal spending & budget deficits and that spending on defence etc would stimulate output, employment etc and so benefit the economy.

How much did Kennedy increase military spending?

13%

1961 - $47.4 billion vs 1964 - $53.6 billion

How did the conventional forces change under Kennedy?

2.5 million men in armed forces - 1960

2.7 million men - 1964

Increase in number of soldiers trained in counter-insurgency techniques (counter- guerilla warfare) called the Green Berets.

What was Kennedy’s reasoning for an increase in economic aid as part of Flexible Response?

He wanted to remove the economic conditions which spawned Communism in 3rd World countries vs Eisenhower who had tackled the symptoms but not the causes.

Where did Kennedy give the increased economic aid to?

In Latin America he set up the Alliance for Progress in 1961 in an attempt to alleviate poverty there - $20 billion dollars was set aside to promote living standards through reforms like land distribution.

The Peace Corps of volunteers was also formed to work on projects in 3rd world countries.

An Agency for International Development was also set up and targeted overseas aid at developing countries.

How did Kennedy increase nuclear forces?

10 new Polaris submarines were built.

400 Minuteman missiles were constructed.

Apollo Space Program announced in 1961.

Overall what were the consequences of Kennedy’s Flexible Response?

• Increase in conventional forces - 13% increase,increase from 2.5 mill to 2.7 mill soldiers in armed forces & in soldiers trained in counter-insurgency techniques Green Berets.

• Enlargement of the nuclear arsenal - 10 new Polaris submarines were built, 400 Minuteman missiles were constructed.

• Economic aid - Alliance for Progress $20 billion dollars set aside for Latin America

• Covert action - Bay of Pigs + Operation Mongoose

• Negotiation with the USSR - post Cuban Missile Crisis diplomacy continued & agreement were reached on nuclear testing

How did the USA’s relationship change with China/the PRC under Kennedy?

Unlike with the USSR, negotiations weren’t able to be reached as the USA still didn’t recognise the PRC or allow admission to the UN.

There were also issues as important American pressure groups still opposed recognition of the PRC & policy makers were worried about their influence on S.E.Asia / Vietnam.

The PRC also had little interest in improving relations so the relationship was still tense/negative.

What was the Vienna Summit?

Conference between USA & USSR in 1961 (only a few months after Kennedy’s inauguration) where Khrushchev and Kennedy met for the first time.

What happened at the Vienna Summit (1961)?

• Kennedy suspected that Khrushchev would try to exploit his relative inexperience in foreign affairs

• Kennedy feared humiliation planned/intended to come off strong

• Khrushchev end up vieing Kennedy as being inexperienced & that he can push Kennedy around

• A key issue in Vienna was the Berlin settlement Khrushchev had been pushing for

What sort of situation did Kennedy inherit in terms of foreign policy?

• A more angry Khrushchev - U2 spy plane and the end of peaceful co-existence

• A worsening USSR-USA relationship

• A Cold War with a much larger focus area - Eisenhower’s involvements in Cuba & Vietnam have to be followed through

What was the situation like in Berlin when Kennedy became president?

There had been discussions about Berlin between Eisenhower and Khrushchev e.g. Camp David but the failure of the Paris Summit meant there was no conclusion on it.

At the same time a Brain Drain is occurring in E.Germany with people using Berlin as an escape route since the E.Germany & W.Germany border had been closed in May 1952.

What was the Brain Drain?

Fleeing of young,educated E.Germans from Communist E.Germany to capitalist W.Germany for a better life.

By the end of 1951 500,000 E.Germans had fled & in 1957 the GDR made escaping to the West as crime punishable by prison sentence.

In July 1961 300,000 E.Germans fled so the situation was still bad for the Germans & Soviets in terms of propaganda and in terms of catching up to the West by Kennedy’s presidency.

What was discussed about Berlin in the Vienna Summit?

Khrushchev tried to force the Americans to sign a peace treaty, threatening to cut off Allied access to W.Berlin.

Kennedy responded by increasing the number of army divisions & announcing substantial increases in ICBMs.

Overall it was an unsuccessful summit which only increased tensions.

Who was the Berlin Wall built by?

The East Germans/ German Democratic Republic!!!

While Khrushchev agreed to the initial building it wasn’t a project led by the Soviets so it isn’t technically a USSR-USA issue but a USA-GDR issue.

What happened in the Berlin Wall/Crisis?

Over the 12th of August night & 13th morning a barbed wire fence - to be replaced with a concrete one - was built slightly inside East Berlin so it didn’t encroach on West territory.

It was 155km long with 302 watchtowers.

What was the American response to the Berlin Wall?

Immediately after it was built on the 13th, American tanks were sent to the wall area.

Kennedy’s military advised him to destroy the wall by force but he wasn’t prepared to go to war saying “a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war”.

The Americans didn’t get involved for risk of war etc.

What was the high point in tension with the Berlin Wall/Crisis?

October 1961 :

• Soviet and American tanks were involved in a stand-off across Checkpoint Charlie after an American diplomat refuses to comply to E.German orders saying he’ll only talk to a Soviet

• The stand-off went on for 16 hours with the two facing each other with only 100m between them

• Talks between the Soviets & Americans happened at the same time & led to an agreement that both sides would withdraw at the same time

• The crisis ended with neither side losing face

How did the Berlin Wall effect the people of Berlin?

The wall harshly divided people and was deeply troubling to them.

The wall was constantly being improved to make it harder to escape & led to >200 people dying while trying to escape.

How did the Berlin Wall effect America’s foreign policy relationships?

USA-USSR relations -

• the Berlin Wall had a positive effect on their relationship as Berlin was no longer a trouble spot in the Cold War& essentially solved the Berlin question which had existed since 1945

• it seemed that by building the wall the Soviets had accepted the USA’s presence in Berlin & there were no more ultimatums etc

American - West German relations -

• The relationship with West Germany surprisingly didn’t become negative as most people understood Kennedy had very few options and most W.Germans didn’t want to go to war after WW2

• In June 1963 JFK visited West Berlin & did his “ich bin ein Berliner” to an audience of 450,000 & ecstatic crowds

• While he wasn’t able to improve their situation the West people they at least felt that Kennedy cared & empathised with them

Overall, how did the Berlin Wall/Crisis effect Kennedy?

Kennedy’s reputation stayed the same/improved as most people didn’t expect any more from him in such a difficult scenario and agree with his sentiment of “a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war”.

He’s able to handle the situation quite well.

What were the main reasons as to why the situation with Cuba escalated under Kennedy?

• Cuba moving close to the USSR & Communism -

  • Castro nationalised US oil refiners and other assets, Castro anti-american rhetoric grew and believing imminent invasion,

  • sought USSR military aid, agreed by Khurshchev threatening nuclear retaliation and Cuba in soviet bloc

• Actions taken by the USA towards Cuba

  • CIA set up cuban task force 1959 approved by Ike to invade 1960 w/cuban exiles and airdropping supplies to anti-castro rebels

  • JFK called for overthrow of castro

• USSR moving closer to Cuba

What were Kennedy’s main foreign policy aims and where did he say them?

Mainly in his inaugural speech, presidential campaign and in Flexible Response.

• Support friendly countries to maintain their freedom

• Challenge threats to freedom

• Close the missile gap

• Quest for peace

What actions did Kennedy take to support friendly countries to maintain their freedom?

• Alliance for Poverty - 1961 - able to set aside $20 billion to help alleviate poverty in Latin America

• Support of West Berlin - received well by Berlin public in trip in 1963

• Continued support of S.V - increased financial aid, number of military advisers from 800 to 17000 and attempted to help Diem with social reforms

  • however continued to support Diem as president despite actively going against the freedoms of the Buddhist majority S.Vietnamese people

What actions did Kennedy take to challenge threats to freedom?

• Involvement in Cuba - only somewhat successful as the Bay of Pigs1961 invasion was a complete disaster and only pushed Castro towards Communism & military bases being built in Cuba

• Cuban Missile Crisis was a bit more successful as he was able to make the Soviets remove the missiles but Cuba remained a Soviet ally

• Continues support of S.V to prevent attack from N.V and is successful as SV remains non-communist but also unsuccessful as the support for the Viet Cong & Ho Chi Minh was high - 1962 US officials estimate 9% of the pop is controlled by the Vietcong

What actions does Kennedy take to go on a quest for peace?

• Peaceful actions in the Cuban missile crisis 1962 - choosing not to retaliate after the shooting down of the U2 plane on Oct 27th

• Peaceful actions in the resolutions after - hotline set up between Moscow and Washigton

• However both of these only happen due to Khrushchev as much as Kennedy - first to send the letter and proposal

• Kennedy also doesn’t take as many peaceful actions as possible - refuses to remove missiles in Turkey

What actions does Kennedy take to close the missile gap & space race?

• Increase in nuclear weapons - adds 10 Polaris submarines & 400 minuteman missile

• However this is only a short term success as the USSR fully commits to nuclear parity after the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 and the removal of missile there & they reach parity by 1972

• Successful in the long term in space race as he announces the Apollo programme which is successful in 1969

• Unsuccessful in the short term with the space race as the Soviets send the 1st man to space in 1961

Why did Kennedy continue with the plan to invade Cuba?

CIA and Eisenhower (unchallenged military reputation) support, JFK administration didnt speak up/were former students of CIA chief, JFK had promised to support cuban freedom fighters, seemed good opportunity to overthrow

What happened in the Bay of Pigs invasion?

Cuban exiles backed by America attempt to invade Cuba by landing at the Bay of Pigs and try to travel inwards - complete failure.

17th April 1961

Only lasted 3 days

Why did the bay of pigs invasion fail?

-poor planning of routes

-local population didnt rise up- castro popular

-promised US air support never came (kennedy aimed to keep it a cuban venture only)

-castro forewarned- plan leaked

-lack of administration support

bay of pigs - significance

d-amaged american reputation

-propaganda win for castro at home & abroad- particularly latin america

-stronger cuban-soviet relations - castro declares himself communist and requested arms in case of another invasion

-left JFK desperate for success and Khrushchev believing he could take advantage of young president

What was US policy toward cuba after bay of pigs?

Military - US forces conduct amphibious exercises near purto rico aimed to overthrowing imaginary dictator - codename 'ORTSAC'

Economic - CIA sabotage petroleum installation and sank cuban merchant vessels

-strict embargo on all cuban imports remained

-1962 secured expulsion from OAS (org american states)

CIA - -Kennedy launched a military operation in a bid to destabilise Castro and overthrow the government - Operation Mongoose

Mix of policies shows idea of flexible response.

What was the Cuban response to the bay of pigs invasion?

Turned to soviets - military protection 1960, further after BofP (125 tanks 1961)

1962- Soviets send Nukes (Mid range ballistic missiles - offensive) and >40,000 military personnel garrisoned on the island

What did Operation Mongoose consist of ?

It was a coordinated plan of political, physcological, military, sabotage and intelligence operations, as well as proposed assassination attempts on key political leaders, including Castro.

What is meant by the ‘Missile gap’ ?

The supposed gap between missiles made by the US and the USSR at the end of Eisenhower’s presidency.

How was Kennedy’s claim of a ‘missile gap’ untrue ?

America had the superior number of nuclear weapons

What did the Limited Test Ban treaty signed by UK, USA and USSR in August 1963 outlaw ?

the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater and in outer space due to concerns about its impact on the environment

When did Soviet nuclear missiles and technicians arrive in Cuba?

August 1962

When did Kennedy hear rumours of missiles in Cuba and issue a public warning to the Soviets against the introduction of offensive weapons into Cuba ?

September 1962

What happened in the Cuban Missile Crisis?

-U2 plane proof of missile construction

-Ex-comm commission set up- Doves and Hawks (war) - 16th

-JFK announces plan to quarantine Cuba - 22nd

-Khrushchev sends a letter saying the Soviet ships wouldn’t follow the blockade & doesn’t admit the presence of missile - 23rd

-blockade begins & soviet ships reach blockade but turn back - 24th

-aerial photos show that missile bases are still being built - 25th

-Khrushchev 2 letters - 1st negotiating leaving cuba if no invasion & admits to missiles but says they are purely defensive- 26th

-2nd about turkish missiles removed 27th

-U2 spy plane is shot down over Cuba & pilot is dead - JFK encouraged to launch an attack - 27th

-JFK delays attack ignores 2nd but agrees to 1st and released blockade - 27th

-secretly agrees 2nd deal - Bobby Kennedy discussed the removal of missiles secretly & agrees to remove them -27th

- Khrushchev replies to Kennedy & agrees to remove missiles - 28th

'13 days' on brink of nuclear war

In October 1962, Kennedy placed a naval blockade, or a ring of ships around Cuba, which he called a ‘quarantine’, how did Kennedy inform the public about this move ?

on October 22nd, he told the US public of the CMC in a televised address

Why did JFK introduce a ‘quarantine’ or naval blockade around Cuba in October 1962 ?

To prevent further building of soviet missile bases.

What responses followed the shooting down of an American U2 plane by the Soviets on October 27th 1962 (not the U2 crisis) by Kennedy and Khrushchev ?

Khrushchev - publicly demanded removal of US missiles from Turkey

Kennedy - refused to do this and accepted Khrushchev’s offer from the 26th October (to stop the naval blockade and promise not to invade Cuba)

What were the consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis?

'hotline' between 2 powers to prevent crisis

'thaw' in cold war relations

1963 partial test ban treaty- nuclear weapon test in atmosphere and ocean (ban)- steps toward arm control

What were the consequences of the CMC for JFK?

1) JFK came out of the crisis with a greatly improved reputation - stood up to Khrushchev and made him back down

2) stood up to the hardliners in his own government - some wanted the USA to invade - CMC highlighted risk of military invasions

removal of missiles (security), propaganda,

turkish missile removal secret and outdated (ICBMs)

(-) NATO felt interests not thought regarding Turkish missiles- didnt consult

Had to accept that Castro’s Cuba would remain a communist state in America’s back-yard

What were the consequences of the CMC for Khrushchev?

(+) victory as peace maker 'protected cuba', cuba communist and armed, no turkey missiles

(-) irritated communist leaders for backing down, looked weak, removed as premier 2 years later, success of removal of Turkish missiles couldn’t be publicized/couldn’t be used for propaganda

Why was the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty limited ?

Both USA & USSR still built nuclear weapons.

loopholes for how they could still be tested

What was JFK’s aim for the number of military advisors in Vietnam by the end of his presidency ?

aimed to withdraw advisors by the end of his presidency

Who were the ARVN

S.V. army linked w/Gov - worked w/US

What was the Ho Chi Minh Trail

supply route through Laos, Cambodia for supplies/weapons

why did US involvement in Vietnam increase under JFK : Kennedy personality

wanted to show strong leadership to world and ussr / reassure other south east Asian states (domino theory)

-convinced third world would be main stage of US-USSSR struggles

-Political pressures

why did US involvement in Vietnam increase under JFK : Administration individuals

Rob McNamara (sec. state) - great influence - liked statistical analysis- stats favoured US (size of army)- urged financial and military aid

-Kennedy relied more on defence dept over state dept

why did US involvement in Vietnam increase under JFK : other cold war events

-obligation to continue as rose under Truman and Ike

-removal of involvement could reduce credibility

-victory needed after bay of pigs

How did involvement in vietnam escalate - reform option

-urge Diem to introduce social, econ, political reform- sent LBJ to convince

-more financial aid immediately

-Galbraith assed it as not a military problem - criticised McNamara

How did involvement in vietnam escalate - military option

-increase no'/role of US advisors from 900 - 16,000

-US aid to set up strategic hamlets prevent them from being targeted by the Vietcong - 1962

-US helicopters and pilots

-approved napalm

-JFK approved assassination of Diem 1963 - Diem dubbed inept and reports he would make deal w/Hanoi

Why was Diem unpopular with the Vietnamese people?

He was Catholic and discriminatory to the majority Buddhist population - banned the flying of the Buddhist flag on Buddhas birthday. - 1963

Land was taken from peasants and given to Diem’s friends and supporters

He would also give positions in power to other Catholics instead of Buddhists.

What was the role of US military advisors in Vietnam ?

To train the ARVN

Why was the the Strategic Hamlet programme, introduced in 1962 by JFK was largely unsuccessful

1) displaced peasant farmers from their land

2) Vietcong still managed to gain support by providing food and treating the peasants better than the Americans did

Lack of success meant it ended in Nov 1963.

How were the US government involved in the November coup against Ngo Dinh Diem ?

They admitted to being aware of the coup being planned