AP Psychology Unit 3 Development and Learning

2024 CED

Developmental Psychology

study of how and why people change over the course of their life. pursued in either chronological order or thematic order

Stability & Change

helps us understand how and why people remain the same in some ways but also evolve and adapt in other ways as they go through life stages

Longitudinal Research

Used to gain insight into changes and patterns that occur over an extended period of time. Great at tracking developmental changes, understanding different trends over time, and gaining insight into cause-and-effect relationships

Nature & Nurture

what factors determine a person’s behavior and traits: genetics or environment?

Continuous Development

development that is gradual and smooth

Discontinuous Development

development that occurs in distinct stages or steps

Cross-Sectional Research

Studying different groups of people of various ages at the same point in time. Shows similarities and differences across age groups, but does not show development or change

Prenatal Development

the process of growth and development in the womb, starting from conception and continuing until birth

Teratogens

harmful substances that can cause developmental abnormalities or birth defects when a fetus is exposed to them during prenatal development

Maternal Illness

any disease and/or infection that a mother experiences during pregnancy that can affect the developing fetus

Genetic Mutations

either occurring spontaneously or inherited from parents, it can lead to various genetic disorders, affecting both physical and cognitive development

Hormonal Factor in Prenatal Development

hormones that affect fetal development, including brain growth and development

Environmental Factors in Prenatal Development

any external elements that can affect prenatal development, such as air pollution and water contamination

Infant Reflexes

automatic, instinctual responses that newborns are born with, aiding in their survival

Rooting Reflex

when a baby’s cheek is gently stroked near their mouth, they turn in that direction, mouth open, ready to eat

Gross Motor Skills

involve larger muscle movements

Fine Motor Skills

involve smaller muscle movements

Visual Cliff Experiment

An experimental setup used to study depth perception in infants, featuring a clear glass surface that creates the illusion of a drop-off to test whether infants can perceive and avoid the “cliff”

Maturation

a biological growth process that leads to orderly changes in both physical and mental behavior, guided by genetics and largely unaffected by environment

Developmental Milestones

key skills or behaviors that most children achieve by specific ages, marking significant progress in physical, cognitive, and social development. Include walking and talking

Sensitive Period

a critical period in early development when the brain is especially receptive to learning specific skills, such as languages, making it easier to acquire them during this phase.

Imprinting

when certain animals form a strong attachment to the first moving object the newborn sees shortly after birth or hatching; generally their mother

Puberty

period of hormonal and physical changes during adolescence, leading to sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce

Primary Sex Characteristics

reproductive organs and structures involved in reproduction

Menarche

the first time a female menstruates, marking the start of puberty

Spermache

the first time a male ejaculates, marking the start of puberty

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical traits from puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction, such as breast development, facial hair, and voice deepening

Adolescence Growth Spurt

a rapid increase in height and weight

Menopause

the natural biological process marking the end of a woman’s menstrual cycles, typically occurring around middle adulthood and characterized by hormonal changes and the end of the ability to conceive

Sex

The biological influences by which people define male, female, and intersex

Gender

the social, physical, and behavioral traits that a society associates with a person’s biological sex

Gender Schema Theory

the ability for children to create mental categories for masculinity and femininity

Socialization

the process of learning what values, standards, and attitudes are appropriate

Sexual Orientation

a person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another person

Jean Piaget

a psychologist that studied children’s developing cognition

Schema

a mental framework that is used to understand and organize information about the world

Assimilation

Adding new information to existing schemas

Accommodation

Altering existing schemas or creating new ones

Sensorimotor Stage

1st of Piaget’s stages occurring during age 0-2, infants learn about the world through sensory experiences and motor actions

Object Permanence

the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they’re out of sight; developed during sensorimotor stage

Preoperational Stage

2nd of Piaget’s stages occurring during ages 2-7, toddlers and children start to develop symbolic thinking, language, and imagination, but struggle with logical reasoning and understanding others’ perspectives

Symbolic Thinking

a person’s ability to think about things that aren’t right in front of them

Pretend Play

when a child uses their imagination to act out different scenarios with toys, objects, and other children

Animism

where children attribute lifelike qualities to inanimate objects; developed during the preoperational stage

Conservation

the idea that something stays the same amount even if its shape changes

Reversibility

involves being able to mentally reverse an action

Egocentrism

when children struggles to see things from another person’s point of view

Theory of Mind

generally occurs towards the second half of the preoperational stage; the ability to understand that other people have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives that are different from their own

Concrete Operational Stage

3rd of Piaget’s stages occurring during ages 7-11, this is when children become more logical and can perform more mental operations, but struggle to think hypothetically and systematically

Formal Operational Stage

4th of Piaget’s stages, starting around age 12, when people gain the ability to think abstractly, use logic in more advanced ways, consider hypothetical situations, and pounder philosophical questions. Piaget proposed that not all people achieve this stage

Lev Vygotsky

Created the theory that social interactions plays a critical role in cognitive development

Sociocultural Theory

believes that children develop skills and knowledge by interacting with people around them

Zone of Proximal Development

The range between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance, emphasizing the importance of social interaction in learning

Scaffolding

a teaching method where a knowledgeable person provides tailored support to help a learner achieve new skills, gradually reducing assistance as the learner becomes more proficient

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge and skills accumulated over time through education and experience. Improves with age

Fluid Intelligence

An individual’s ability to reason quickly and think flexibly. Peaks in early adulthood and starts to decline with age

Dementia

a decline in cognitive functioning that interferes with daily life, characterized by memory loss, impaired judgement, and difficulties in communication and reasoning

Language

a system of communication using symbols, sounds, and grammar to convey thoughts, feelings, and meanings

Phonemes

The smallest distinct units of sound that can change the meaning of a word

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language, such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words

Semantics

the meaning behind words and sentences

Grammar

a set of rules that govern how words can be combined to form sentences, enabling clear and meaningful communication in a language

Syntax

the specific rules for arranging words and phrases into sentences

Nonverbal Gestures

hand or arm movements used to communicate without speaking

Cooing

early stage of language development where infants produce repetitive, soft vowel sounds like “ooh” and “ahh”, usually starting around two months of age

Babbling

where infants produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations like “da-da” and “ma-ma”

One-Word Stage

where children use single words to represent whole sentences or ideas

Two-Word Stage (Telegraphic Speech Stage)

where children start to connect two or three word phrases together

Overgeneralization

a common error in language development where people apply grammar rules too broadly

Ecological Systems Theory

how a child’s development is influence by multiple layers of environmental systems

Microsystem

includes other people and groups that an individual has direct interactions with, like family

Mesosystem

Includes relationships between different microsystems in the individual’s life

Ecosystem

indirect influences in an individual’s life, like work or school

Macrosystem

cultural events that affect the individuals and others around them

Chronosystem

the individual’s current stage of life that influences development, like moving to college and parents divorcing

Authoritarian Parenting

characterized by strict rules, little room for discussion, high expectations, and often consists of punishment to enforce rules

Permissive Parenting

characterized by fewer rules and expectations, lots of freedom, and often showing warmth

Authoritative Parenting

a balanced approach, characterized by clear rules and expectations and room for discussion

Attachment Styles

patterns of behavior that shows how children form emotional bonds with caregiving, influencing relationships later in life

Secure Attachment

children feel confident and trust that their caregiver will meet their needs, making making children feeling comfortable exploring

Avoidant Attachment

Children exhibit independence and avoid seeking comfort from their caregiver. They appear indifferent to separation and avoid closeness

Anxious Attachment

children are overly clingy and anxious from separation from their caregiver because of inconsistent responsiveness; they show extreme distress, dependency, and resistance to comfort

Disorganized Attachment

a pattern of inconsistent or confused behaviors towards a caregiver, resulting from trauma and abuse. Children seeks closeness yet shows fear

Temperament

innate traits that influence how children respond to their environment, including their activity level, emotional reactivity, and adaptability

Separation Anxiety

when an child feels nervous, upset, or fearful about being away from their caregiver

Contact Comfort

the sense of security and emotional relief derived from physical touch, particularly between infants and caregivers

Parallel Play

where children simply play next to each other rather than directly with each other

Adolescent Egocentrism

an increased self-focus, leading to beliefs of imaginary audience and personal fable

Imaginary Audience

people believe others are constantly watching and judging their behavior, making them highly self-conscious

Personal Fable

The belief that one’s experiences are unique and special, leading to feelings of invulnerability and underestimation of potential risks

Identity Foreclosure

the commitment to goals, beliefs, or values without exploring alternatives, often adopting the expectations of parents or family

Identity Diffusion

when an individual has not yet explored or committed to life choices regarding beliefs, goals, or values, leading to uncertainty

Identity Moratorium

where people actively explore different life paths, beliefs, and values but have not yet made a final commitment

Identity Achievement

when individuals have explored various life paths and made firm commitments about their beliefs, values, and goals, resulting in a clear and stable identity

Social Clock

societal expectations about when major life events should happen

Emerging Adulthood

where individuals in their early 20s explore their career paths, relationships, and identities all before taking on full adult responsibilities

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

stressful or traumatic events that occur during a person’s childhood, such as abuse or neglect, that impacts health and well-being

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

a theory that individuals progress through a series of stages, each characterized by a specific conflict that contributes to a major aspect of personality

Trust vs. Mistrust

occurring from birth to 18 months, infants learn whether or not they can trust the world to meet their basic needs