Developmental - Chpt. 8 - Social and Personality Development in Preschool Years

What is the psychosocial development theory proposed by Erikson for preschoolers?

It encompasses changes in individuals' understanding of themselves and others' behavior, specifically during the initiative-versus-guilt stage from ages 3 to 6.

What is self-concept in preschoolers?

A person's identity or set of beliefs about what one is like, often characterized by overestimating skills and knowledge.

How does culture influence preschoolers' self-concept?

Collectivist orientation promotes interdependence, while individualistic orientation emphasizes personal identity and uniqueness.

How does racial awareness develop in preschoolers?

Most preschoolers have racial awareness and later begin to attribute meaning to racial differences, identifying with certain groups.

What is race dissonance in minority children?

It refers to minority children showing preferences for majority values and people.

What is gender identity and when is it established?

The sense one has of being male or female, which is well established by the preschool years.

How do preschoolers typically play according to gender?

Boys tend to play more with boys, and girls with girls, often adhering to strict gender-stereotyped expectations.

What biological factors influence gender identity in children?

Biological characteristics associated with a child's sex, including hormones and brain structure differences.

What is the psychoanalytic perspective on gender identity?

It involves identification with the same-sex parent, leading children to adopt their parents' attitudes and values about gender.

How do children learn gender-related behaviors according to social learning perspectives?

Children learn by observing others, including through books, media, and television.

What is a gender schema?

A cognitive framework that organizes information relevant to gender categories, leading children to perceive the world in terms of gender.

What is gender constancy and when do preschoolers typically understand it?

The belief that people are consistently male or female, understood by age 4 or 5.

What defines transgender children?

Children whose gender identity, expression, or behavior does not align with the sex assigned at birth.

What was a key finding in recent research on transgender children?

Transgender children and their siblings were more likely to believe that gender identity could change over time.

What are the foundations of preschoolers' friendships?

Friendships are based on companionship, play, and fun, evolving to include trust, support, and shared interests.

How does the conception of friendship change as preschoolers age?

Their view evolves to see friendship as a continuing state and a stable relationship.

What is functional play?

Simple, repetitive activities typical of 3-year-olds that may involve objects or repetitive muscular movements.

What is constructive play?

Activities in which children manipulate objects to produce or build something, allowing them to test physical and cognitive skills.

What characterizes parallel play?

Playing with similar toys in a similar manner without interacting with each other.

What is onlooker play?

Watching others play without participating.

Define associative play.

Interacting with one another in groups of 2 or more, sharing or borrowing toys, but not engaging in the same activity.

What is cooperative play?

Playing and interacting with one another, taking turns, and playing games or devising contests.

What is solitary play?

Playing alone without interaction with others.

How does pretend play contribute to child development?

It expands cognitive skills, enhances self-control, planning abilities, and emotional self-regulation.

What is theory of mind in preschoolers?

The ability to generate explanations for how others think and behave, seeing the world from others' perspectives.

What factors contribute to the development of preschoolers' theory of mind?

Brain maturation, hormonal changes, developing language skills, social interaction opportunities, and cultural factors.

What is the impact of parenting styles on preschoolers?

Different parenting styles correlate with children's behaviors and outcomes, affecting their emotional and social development.

Describe authoritarian parenting.

High controlling, punitive, and rigid with low acceptance; often leads to unhappy disposition and behavior problems in children.

What defines permissive parenting?

Low controlling and demanding with high acceptance; often results in poor self-control and severe relationship issues in children.

What are the characteristics of authoritative parenting?

High in both controlling and acceptance; promotes independence, positive self-esteem, and better academic performance in children.

What is uninvolved parenting?

Low in both controlling and acceptance; leads to impulsive behavior and emotional regulation issues in children.

What is attachment parenting?

A style focused on nurturing and forming strong emotional bonds with children.

What is the significance of cultural differences in child-rearing?

Child-rearing practices vary across cultures, affecting children's development and perspectives on authority.

What is the prevalence of child abuse in the U.S.?

132 U.S. children are killed daily by caretakers, with 3 million experiencing abuse or neglect annually.

Who is most at risk for abuse or neglect?

Children are often at risk from parents, family members, caregivers, or family friends.

What is the definition of child abuse according to most U.S. state laws?

Any intentional harm or mistreatment of a child under age 18 is abuse and a criminal offense.

What are adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)?

Another term for child abuse and neglect.

What factors increase the risk of child abuse?

Low socioeconomic status, being under 4 years of age, having special needs, and living in stressful environments.

What are the main types of child abuse?

Physical, sexual, emotional/psychological, neglect, and medical.

What are some examples of physical abuse?

Slapping, pushing, punching, kicking, shaking, burning, and preventing a child from eating or using the bathroom.

What constitutes emotional abuse?

Frequent verbal insults, constant criticism, harsh demands, threats, and yelling.

What are some signs of sexual abuse in children?

Rape, incest, fondling, indecent exposure, using a child in pornography, and exposing a child to pornographic material.

What does medical neglect involve?

Intentionally trying to make a child sick or withholding treatment for a medical condition.

What are the signs that a child may be experiencing abuse?

Visible serious injuries with no reasonable explanation, fear of adults, inappropriate attire in warm weather, and extreme behavior.

What is the Cycle of Violence Hypothesis?

The theory that abuse and neglect suffered by children predispose them to abuse and neglect their own children as adults.

What is psychological maltreatment?

Harm to a child's behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical functioning, often resulting from neglect or overt behavior.

What are some long-term effects of psychological maltreatment?

Low self-esteem, underachievement, aggressive behavior, and depression.

What is resilience in children?

The ability to overcome circumstances and learn to deal with them positively.

How can caregivers help build resilience in children?

Support problem-solving, allow children to experience minor challenges, and encourage efforts regardless of the outcome.

What traits do resilient children often exhibit?

Affectionate, easy-going, good-natured, and capable of building strong relationships.

What is a common misconception about the line between spanking and beating?

The line is not clear; spankings begun in anger can escalate to abuse.

What is the impact of childhood abuse on the brain?

The limbic system, including the hippocampus and amygdala, can be permanently altered.

What behaviors might indicate a child is experiencing emotional abuse?

Extreme passivity, withdrawal, or aggressive behavior.

Why is it important to recognize signs of neglect?

Neglect can severely impact a child's access to food, shelter, education, medical care, and emotional support.

What role does unrealistic adult expectation play in child abuse?

Children's failure to meet these expectations may provoke abusive reactions from caregivers.

What are some characteristics of resilient children?

They often bounce back from setbacks, solve problems well, and maintain better physical and mental health.

What is the significance of strong relationships in building resilience?

Strong relationships provide a foundation for a child's resilience.

What is self-compassion in the context of dealing with disappointment?

Being kind to oneself when facing failures or mistakes.

What parenting style is most effective for children in Western cultures?

Authoritative parenting.

What discipline technique is never appropriate according to child development guidelines?

Spanking.

How should time-out be used as a punishment?

Children should stay in time-out for as many minutes as they are old (e.g., a 6-year-old for 6 minutes).

What is the purpose of using routines in parenting?

To avoid conflicts, such as establishing a bath or bedtime routine.

What is moral development?

Changes in people's sense of justice and behavior related to moral issues, following stages and ages.

What characterizes Heteronomous Morality according to Piaget?

Children see rules as invariant and unchangeable, often not grasping the intentions behind actions.

What is the Incipient Cooperation Stage in Piaget's theory?

A stage where children learn formal rules and play according to shared knowledge (ages 7 to 10).

What occurs in the Autonomous Cooperation Stage of moral development?

Children become aware that rules can be modified by agreement among players (beginning age 10).

What criticism did researchers have regarding Piaget's approach to moral development?

He underestimated the age at which children's moral skills are developed.

What is the role of children's environments in moral behavior?

Environments produce prosocial behavior, which is learned through reinforcement and modeling.

What is Abstract Modeling in the context of moral development?

A process where modeling leads to the development of general rules and principles.

How does empathy influence moral behavior in children?

Increasing empathy leads children to act in moral ways by understanding others' feelings.

What is aggression in preschoolers?

Intentional injury or harm to another person, often motivated by a desired goal.

What is instrumental aggression?

Aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal.

What is relational aggression?

Nonphysical aggression intended to hurt another person's feelings.

What do instinctual explanations suggest about aggression?

Aggression is motivated by sexual and aggressive instincts, as proposed by Freud and Lorenz.

How does Social Learning Theory explain aggression in children?

Aggression is shaped by prior learning and observation, with exposure to aggressive models increasing aggressive behavior.

What cognitive approach focuses on preschoolers' interpretations of behavior?

Cognitive Theory, which examines how children perceive others' actions and the context.

What are the potential effects of violent video games on children?

Increased aggressive thoughts, feelings, behaviors, desensitization to violence, and lack of empathy.

What strategies can help reduce aggression in preschool-age children?

Provide cooperative role models, monitor media exposure, and teach reasoning and self-control.

What is the significance of teaching children to view violence skeptically?

It helps them become less influenced by violent programs and promotes nonaggressive behavior.