BIOL 1406 Exam 3 Vocabulary

Biotechnology

broad discipline where processes, organisms, and cells are exploited to develop new technologies

Restriction Enzymes

proteins that cut DNA at specific sequences, acting as a defense mechanism in bacteria against viruses

Recombinant DNA

DNA from two or more sources combines (using a lab technique)

cDNA

a synthetic DNA molecule synthesized from an mRNA template using the enzyme reverse transcriptase

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

way to make copies of a gene or DNA (mimics DNA replication)

Taq DNA Polymerase

a thermostable enzyme commonly used for PCR that is isolated from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus

Polymorphism

presence of two or more different forms of a gene, DNA sequence, crystal structure, or other entity within a population

Gel Electrophoresis (southern blot, northern blot, western blot)

separates DNA (smaller fragments move faster than larger)
south- visualize DNA, north- visualize RNA, west- visualize proteins

DNA sequencing

he process of reading the order of nucleotide bases

Transgenic organisms

carry genes introduced using molecular function, uses genes from other organisms

Knock in and knock out animals

Knockout animals have a gene inactivated, while knock-in animals have a new gene or sequence inserted into their genome

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck

first to propose a theory of evolution (suggested the inheritance of acquired traits and individuals adapt)

Thomas Malthus

stated the size of a population (disease, war, and crowding limit the size of the population)

Charles Lyell

said scientists must explain past events

Charles Darwin

said evolution occurred by natural selection

Evolution

the process of change in the heritable characteristics of a population over generations

Population

group of 1 species living together

Species

a group of organisms that share common characteristics and can interbreed to produce fertile offspring

Natural Selection

individuals with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, causing those beneficial traits to become more common in a population over generations

Darwinian fitness

measure of an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in its environment, measured by the number of viable offspring it contributes to the next generation

Adaptation

heritable traits that increase an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in its environment

Strata

Any from the layers of tissues arranged one atop another, thus forming an anatomical structure

Transitional Fossils

fossilized remains of organisms that show intermediate characteristics between ancestral and descendant groups, providing evidence for evolutionary change

Homologous Structures

same structure, same common ancestor, different function

Homoplastic Structures

same structure, no common ancestor, developed differently

Vestigial Structures

structure that no longer has function, reduced in size

Convergent Traits

similar traits, but with different evolutions (not due to common ancestry but common environment)

Genotype frequency

proportion of a genotype in a population

Phenotype frequency

proportion of a phenotype in a population

Allele frequency

proportion of a allele in a population

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

allele frequencies stay constant unless factors occur

Genetic Equilibrium

no mate choice, no mutations, no genetic drift, no gene flow, no natural selection

p+q=1

allele frequency equation (p is dominant, q is recessive)

p²+2pq+q²=1

genotype frequency equation (p² is homo dominant, 2pq is hetero, q² is homo recessive)

Genetic drift

change in allele frequencies in small population (accident)

Gene flow

movement of alleles caused by migration

Mutations

change in an organism's DNA sequence

Nonrandom mating

a mating pattern where individuals select their partners based on specific traits, rather than chance

Founder effect

small population colonizes a new area (leaves large population)

Bottleneck

sudden decrease in population size, usually by natural disasters

Immigration

entering a new country to settle

Emigration

leaving home country to settle elsewhere

Deleterious alleles

a version of a gene that, on average, reduces the fitness of the organism carrying it, leading to a decrease in its survival and reproductive success

Beneficial alleles

genetic variants that increase an organism's Darwinian fitness, meaning they help improve survival and reproduction

Assortative mating

breeding with individuals with similar phenotypes

Stabilizing Selection

in-between extremes will have an advantage

Directional Selection

one phenotype extreme is favored

Disruptive Selection

favors two or more phenotype extreme

Redox Reactions

chemical reactions involving the transfer of electrons between two species
reduced- gains electrons
oxidation- loss of electrons

NADH+

oxidizing agent, + means it has lost an electron, is an electron carrier

NADPH2

made during light dependent reactions and is used in light independet

FADH+

oxidized form of FADH2, has no electrons bc of +

Carbohydrates

broken down into glucose for energy

Monosaccarides

simplest form of carbohydrates, 1 ring

Disaccharides

2 monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic link, 2 rings

Polysaccharides

large carbohydrate composed of many monosaccharides linked together

ATP

energy, made during cellular respiration

Aerobic respiration

with oxygen, redox reaction

Anaerobic respiration

without oxygen, fermentation regens NAD+

Glycolysis

glucose converted to 2 pyruvates, ATP and NADH formed (+2 ATP)

Formation of acetyl CoA

Pyruvate processing, pyruvate is converted into acetyl CoA and NADH is produced (in mitrochondria)

Krebs or Citric acid cycle

Acetyl CoA combines with oxalacetate to make citrate, ATP, NADH, and FADH2 (in mitochondria, +2 ATP)

Electron transport chain

NADH and FADH will drop its electrons off at the complexes on the intermembrane, Hydrogens will create a proton gradient which will create ATP when H+ goes through ATP synthase and binds ADP +Pi

chemiosmosis

synthesis of ATP made as a result of pushing H+ across membrance

Substrate-level Phosphorylation

the process of directly transferring a phosphate group from a high-energy substrate molecule to ADP to form ATP

Mitochondria

where cellular respiration occurs

ATP synthase

molecular machine that uses a proton gradient to synthesize the cell's main energy currency, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi)

Final electron acceptor - Cellular Respiration

O2, it receives electrons at the end of the electron transport chain, and combines with hydrogen ions to form water

Oxidative Phosphorylation

electrons that originated in glucose are transferred via NADH and FADH2 to a chain of electron acceptors where ATP in made (+32, 33, or 34 ATP)

Fermentation

alcohol produces ethanol, lactate produces lactic acid

Photosynthesis

process where autotrophs convert sunlight into chemical energy

Chloroplasts

2 membranes, filled with membrane sacs called thylakoids, the fluid space in between is called stroma

Chlorophylls a & b

Chlorophyll a is the primary pigment for photosynthesis, directly converting light energy into chemical energy, while chlorophyll b is an accessory pigment that absorbs light energy and transfers it to chlorophyll a

Light-dependent reaction

energy from light causes chlorophyll to expel a high-energy electron to an acceptor molecule, then that electron is replaced by an electron from water

Light-independent/ Carbon fixation reaction

uses products from light-dependent (ATP and NADPH) to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates to make sugar

Electromagnetic Spectrum

entire range of electromagnetic radiation, organized by frequency or wavelength (chlorophyll absorbs this energy)

Photons

the fundamental particles of electromagnetic energy (the atom of the electromagnetic spectrum)

Photosystems (I & II)

happens in light dependent reactions, excited electrons go from II to I and water is oxidized which releases energy in ETC and makes a H+ gradient

Photophosphorylation

chemical process that adds a phosphate group to a molecule, often a protein or sugar

Photolysis

light splits a water molecule apart

Final electron acceptor

NADP+ receives high-energy electrons from the electron transport chain to store the energy captured from sunlight. NADPH is then used as a reducing agent in the Calvin cycle to convert carbon dioxide into sugars.

Noncyclic Electron Transport/ Noncyclic Photophosphorylation

linear process, no cycle (light dependent, uses both photosystems)

Cyclic Electron Transport/ Cyclic Photophosphorylation

electrons cycle back to Photosystem I, creating a proton gradient to generate ATP but not NADPH

Calvin Cycle

1. Co2 uptake- CO2 incorporated into RuBP using rubisco

2. Carbon reduction- ATP is used to make 1,3BPG into 12G3P

3. RuBP regen- 10 G3P converted into 6 RuBP

Stoma (stomata - plural)

pores on plant leaves that are essential for photosynthesis because they allow for the intake of carbon dioxide and release of oxygen

Stroma

fluid-filled space within a chloroplast where the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, also known as the Calvin cycle, take place

C3 pathway

most common photosynthetic process in plants, where the enzyme RuBisCO fixes carbon dioxide into a three-carbon compound called 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA) in the Calvin cycle

RuBP carboxylase/ oxygenase (rubisco)

enzyme that catalyzes the initial step of carbon fixation in photosynthesis, but it can also act as an oxygenase, leading to the process of photorespiration

Photorespiration

rubisco adds O2 to RuBP to release Co2 (WASTEFUL), favorable when CO2 is low and O2 is high (in hot and dry enviornments)

C4 plant

plants contain a mechanism to minimize respiration (separate the light-dep. and light-indep. reactions)

CAM Plants

fix carbon dioxide at night and close stroma during the day to prevent water loss (lets plants live in super hot areas)