U1 - Scientific Foundations of Psychology

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 4)

empiricism

the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 7)

structuralism

an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 7)

functionalism

an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 8)

introspection

the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 8)

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 10, 272)

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 11)

cognitive psychology

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 13)

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 13, 124)

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 13)

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 14)

natural selection

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 14, 141)

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior -nd the mind, using principles of natural selection. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 14, 141)

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 14, 129)

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 15, 789)

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 16, 473)

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 17)

behavioral psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 17)

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 17)

psychodynamic psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 18)

social-cultural psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 18)

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 20, 335)

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 20)

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 24)

personality psychology

the study of individuals' characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 24)

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 24)

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 24, 486)

educational psychology

the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 25)

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 25, 768)

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 25)

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 25)

human factors psychology

a field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 25)

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 25)

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 25)

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 25)

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 25)

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 38)

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 42)

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 42)

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 42)

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 43)

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 44)

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 45)

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 47)

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 47)

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.) (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 47)

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 47)

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 50)

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 51)

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 50)

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 50)

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 53)

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 53)

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 54)

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 54)

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 54)

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 54)

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 55)

placebo

effect experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 55)

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 55)

confounding variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 56)

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 56)

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.) (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 56, 636)

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 62)

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 62)

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 66)

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 66)

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 67)

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 67)

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 67)

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 67)

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 68)

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 68)

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e pp. 68, 635)

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 70)

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. (Myers Psychology for AP 3e p. 71)