Biological Review: IB Psychology HL

fMRI

Functional magnetic resonance imaging that measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow.

MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of brain structures.

EEG

Electroencephalogram that records electrical activity of the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.

CAT

Computerized axial tomography scan that uses X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain.

PET

Positron emission tomography scan that uses a radioactive tracer to show brain activity and metabolism.

Localization of Function

The idea that specific areas of the brain are responsible for specific behaviors or cognitive processes.

Cortex

The outer layer of the brain involved in higher-order functions such as perception, thought, and decision-making.

Cerebellum

A region at the back of the brain that regulates motor control, balance, and coordination.

Limbic System

A network of brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.

Brain Stem

The part of the brain connecting to the spinal cord that regulates vital functions such as breathing and heart rate.

Frontal Lobe

Region of the brain involved in decision-making, problem-solving, and control of behavior and emotions.

Temporal Lobe

Region involved in auditory processing, language, and memory.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory information related to touch, spatial orientation, and navigation.

Occipital Lobe

Region responsible for visual processing.

Amygdala

A brain structure involved in emotion, especially fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

A brain structure involved in memory formation and spatial navigation.

Broca's Area

A region in the frontal lobe linked to speech production.

Wernicke's Area

A region in the temporal lobe linked to language comprehension.

Thalamus

The brain's relay station that directs sensory signals to appropriate areas of the cortex.

Hypothalamus

A brain region that regulates homeostasis, hunger, hormones, and the endocrine system.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt by forming new neural connections.

Synapse/Synaptic Connection

The junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.

Neural Network

A system of interconnected neurons that work together to process information.

Neural Pruning

The process of eliminating unused or weak synaptic connections to improve brain efficiency.

Cortical Remapping

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new connections in response to injury or experience.

Neuron

A nerve cell that transmits information via electrical and chemical signals.

Agonist

A chemical that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A chemical that blocks or reduces the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron after transmission.

Neurotransmission

The process of sending signals between neurons via neurotransmitters.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and movement.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, emotion, and sleep.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing.

Hormones

Chemical messengers secreted by glands that travel through the bloodstream to influence behavior.

Oxytocin

A hormone linked to bonding, trust, and social behavior.

Pheromones

Chemical substances released by individuals that can affect the behavior or physiology of others.

Genes

Units of heredity that contain instructions for the development of traits.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid; the molecule that carries genetic information.

Chromosomes

Structures made of DNA that contain many genes; humans have 23 pairs.

Alleles

Different versions of a gene that can produce variations in traits.

Heritability

The extent to which variation in traits can be attributed to genetic factors.

Molecular Genetics

The study of the structure and function of genes at a molecular level.

Epigenetics

The study of how gene expression is influenced by environmental factors without changing DNA.

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins that develop from one fertilized egg and share 100% of their DNA.

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal twins that develop from two fertilized eggs and share about 50% of their DNA.

Kinship Study

Research examining the genetic similarity between relatives to understand heritability.

Natural Selection

The process where organisms with traits better suited to their environment tend to survive and reproduce.

Mutation

A change in DNA sequence that may lead to new traits or diseases.

Evolutionary Theory

The idea that behavior and traits evolve through the process of natural selection.

Reasons Animal Models are Useful

They offer insights into biological processes, allow for controlled studies, and help in understanding human behavior.

Limitations in Animal Models

Ethical issues, biological differences between species, and questions about generalizability to humans.

Animal Research Ethical Concerns

Include ensuring humane treatment, minimizing suffering, and using animals only when necessary.

Sharot (2007)

Investigates Localization of Function and memory; aimed to explore the role of the amygdala in emotional memories during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, finding that the amygdala was more active when recalling emotional aspects, showing the amygdala's role in emotional memory processing.

Maguire et al. (2000)

Explores Localization of Function and neuroplasticity; examined the hippocampus of London taxi drivers, finding that their hippocampi were larger than those of non-taxi drivers, suggesting the hippocampus is involved in spatial memory and that neuroplasticity can result from experience.

Back-y-Rita (1969)

Explores Neuroplasticity and development of neural networks; used sensory substitution to investigate how a tactile device can aid blind individuals, showing that the brain's sensory cortices can adapt to take over functions typically managed by other sensory regions.

Merzenich et al. (1984)

Studies neuroplasticity in adult brains; explored cortical remapping in monkeys after sensory deprivation, showing that sensory areas in the brain can reorganize when deprived of sensory input, illustrating neuroplasticity.

Draganski et al. (2006)

Explores neuroplasticity through structural changes in the brain; studied participants who learned to juggle, showing increased gray matter in the brain areas responsible for visual processing and motor control.

Crockett et al. (2010)

Studies neurotransmitters and moral decision-making; tested serotonin's role in prosocial behavior by administering citalopram (serotonin agonist) and finding that it reduced the likelihood of participants making harmful moral decisions, linking serotonin to social decision-making.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that plays a role in mood regulation and emotional well-being.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with reward-related brain activity, particularly in romantic love.

Trust

A psychological state that is enhanced by oxytocin, as shown in experimental trust games.

Social bonding

The emotional connection between individuals, which can be increased by oxytocin during interactions.

Pheromones

Chemical signals that influence attraction, as evidenced by increased attractiveness ratings in the presence of synthetic pheromones.

Attraction

The influence of pheromones on perceived facial attractiveness in humans.

5-HTT gene

A gene associated with depression, where individuals with a short allele are more likely to develop depression after stress.

Epigenetics

The study of how gene expression is influenced by environmental factors, particularly in mental health.

Heritability

The genetic contribution to intelligence, as shown by higher IQ correlations in monozygotic twins.

Nature vs. Nurture

The debate on the relative contributions of genetics and environment to intelligence, with a stronger influence from genetics.

Amygdala

A brain structure essential for processing threat-related stimuli and emotional responses to fear.

Disgust

An emotional response that is biologically predisposed to help avoid disease, supporting evolutionary psychology.

Evolution

The process by which the amygdala has developed critical roles in adaptive fear responses.

Oxytocin

A hormone that enhances social bonding and attachment behaviors, particularly in dogs and their owners.

Maternal behavior

The nurturing actions of mothers that can affect gene expression and stress responses in their offspring.

Sharot (2007)

9/11 Study- Investigates Localization of Function and memory; aimed to explore the role of the amygdala in emotional memories during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, finding that the amygdala was more active when recalling emotional aspects, showing the amygdala’s role in emotional memory processing.

Maguire et al. (2000)

Taxi Cab Driver Study- Explores Localization of Function and neuroplasticity; examined the hippocampus of London taxi drivers, finding that their hippocampi were larger than those of non-taxi drivers, suggesting the hippocampus is involved in spatial memory and that neuroplasticity can result from experience

Back-y-Rita (1969)

Explores Neuroplasticity and development of neural networks; used sensory substitution to investigate how a tactile device can aid blind individuals, showing that the brain's sensory cortices can adapt to take over functions typically managed by other sensory regions.

Maguire et al. (2000)

Same study as above but focusing on neuroplasticity; investigated the impact of extensive navigation experience on the hippocampus structure in taxi drivers, highlighting the brain's ability to reshape itself in response to environmental demands.

Merzenich et al. (1984)

Studies neuroplasticity in adult brains; explored cortical remapping in monkeys after sensory deprivation, showing that sensory areas in the brain can reorganize when deprived of sensory input, illustrating neuroplasticity.

Draganski et al. (2006)

Explores neuroplasticity through structural changes in the brain; studied participants who learned to juggle, showing increased gray matter in the brain areas responsible for visual processing and motor control

Crockett et al. (2010)

Studies neurotransmitters and moral decision-making; tested serotonin’s role in prosocial behavior by administering citalopram (serotonin agonist) and finding that it reduced the likelihood of participants making harmful moral decisions, linking serotonin to social decision-making

Fisher, Aron, and Brown (2005)

Explores neurotransmitters and love; used fMRI to examine brain activity in individuals who had been in love, finding increased dopamine activity in reward-related brain regions, suggesting dopamine’s role in romantic love

Kosfeld et al. (2005)

Investigates oxytocin and trust; used an experimental trust game and administered oxytocin, finding that oxytocin increased trust between participants, suggesting its role in prosocial behavior.

Scheele et al. (2012)

Investigates oxytocin and social bonding; gave participants oxytocin and found that it increased feelings of trust and closeness when interacting with potential romantic partners, suggesting a role for oxytocin in social behavior.

Cutler, Friedman, and McCoy (1998)

Studies pheromones and attraction; tested the effects of synthetic human pheromones on male participants’ attractiveness ratings, finding an increase in perceived attractiveness when pheromones were present, suggesting a biological role in attraction.

Hare et al. (2017)

Investigates pheromones in human attraction; exposed participants to androstadienone and estratetraenol (potential pheromones), showing that these substances influenced ratings of facial attractiveness, highlighting pheromones’ role in human attraction.

Caspi et al. (2003)

Explores genetics and depression; examined the role of the 5-HTT gene in depression, finding that individuals with a short allele of the gene were more likely to develop depression after stressful life events, suggesting a genetic predisposition

Kaminsky et al. (2009)

Studies epigenetics and behavior; examined the epigenetic influences on mental health by looking at the methylation of genes in children of depressed mothers, finding that epigenetic changes can influence mental health outcomes.

Bouchard & McGue (1981)

Studies heritability of intelligence; used a twin study to measure IQ similarities between monozygotic and dizygotic twins, finding that monozygotic twins raised apart had a higher correlation in IQ, suggesting genetics plays a major role in intelligence

Scarr & Weinberg (1983)

Studies genetics and environment; researched adopted children’s IQs in relation to their biological and adoptive parents, finding that genetics and environment both contribute to intelligence, with a stronger influence from genetics

LeDoux (1999)

Explores localization of the amygdala’s role in fear; studied how the amygdala processes threat-related stimuli, showing that it is essential for the emotional response to fear.

Curtis, Aunger, & Rabie (2004)

Explores evolutionary psychology; tested disgust in relation to disease avoidance and found that humans are biologically predisposed to feel disgust toward potential sources of disease, supporting evolutionary theory.

LeDoux (1996)

Investigates the role of the amygdala in fear responses and evolution; demonstrated that the amygdala plays a critical role in the evolution of adaptive fear responses, showing its evolutionary significance.

Romero et al. (2009)

Studies animal behavior and attachment; observed how oxytocin influences social bonds in dogs, finding that oxytocin increases attachment behaviors between dogs and their owners, illustrating its role in social bonding

Weaver et al. (2004)

Studies epigenetics in animals; explored how maternal behavior affects gene expression in offspring, showing that nurturing behavior can influence DNA methylation, affecting stress responses and behavior in offspring