AP Euro Unit 4 - CH 6 Scientific Revolution

Scientific Revolution

17th-18th cent. shift from a medieval, religious worldview to a secular, rational, and materialistic one

Ptolemaic (Geocentric) System

• Who: Aristotle & Ptolemy.

• What: The ancient, Earth-centered model of the universe.

• How: Earth was "orbited in perfect circles by transparent spheres."

Nicolaus Copernicus (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres)

• Idea: Proposed the Heliocentric (Sun-centered) model using math

• Significance: Challenged the entire Ptolemaic & Aristotelian universe

Tycho Brahe

• Contribution: (Danish astronomer) Collected vast, precise observational data of planets

• Significance: His data was later used by his apprentice, Kepler

Johannes Kepler (Laws of Planetary Motion)

• Contribution: (German astronomer) Used Brahe's data to mathematically prove heliocentrism.

• 3 Laws:

  1. Orbits are elliptical (not circular)

  2. Planets' speed varies (faster near sun)

  3. Orbit time is proportional to distance from sun

Galileo

• Tool: First to use the telescope for systematic astronomical observation

• Discoveries: Moons of Jupiter, mountains on the Moon, sunspots (proved "imperfect heavens")

• Conflict: Condemned by the Church for publicly supporting heliocentrism

Sir Isaac Newton

• Contribution: Formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation

• Significance: Explained how the planets and all objects move, describing the universe as a unified, predictable machine

Andreas Vesalius (On the Fabric of the Human Body)

• Who: "Father of Modern Anatomy."

• Contribution: Published precise anatomical drawings based on human dissection.

• Significance: Corrected many of Galen's errors.

Margaret Cavendish

• Who: Aristocratic female scientist; excluded from the Royal Society.

• Significance: Criticized both rationalism and empiricism; argued humans could not "master" nature.

Rene Descartes (Discourse on Method)

• Who: "Father of Rationalism."

• Method: Championed Deductive Reasoning (start with self-evident truths) & used reason to doubt everything

• Concept: Cartesian Dualism (separation of mind and matter).

Rationalism

a system of thought based on the belief that human reason and experience are the chief sources of knowledge

Scientific Method

A new method of seeking knowledge combining:

1. Inductive principles (Bacon's empiricism)

2. Deductive principles (Descartes's rationalism)

Francis Bacon

• Who: "Father of Empiricism"

• Method: Championed Inductive Reasoning (specific observations → general theory)

• Significance: Key to developing the Scientific Method

Blaise Pascal

• Goal: Tried to unite science and religion.

• Emotion & faith (which reason led to) were key in rel

• Argument: Reason has its limits; that faith was beneficial even if there was no God ("Pascal's Wager").

Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan)

• Human Nature: "Selfish and wicked"

• Social Contract: People give up all rights for protection

• Ideal Gov't: Absolute Monarchy to maintain order

Skepticism

Philosophical theory that certain knowledge is impossible

John Locke's (Essay Concerning Human Understanding)

• Mind: Tabula Rasa ("blank slate"); knowledge comes from experience (empiricism).

• Human Nature: Good / neutral (kindness/fighting)

• Ideal Gov't: Protects natural rights (life, liberty, property); people can overthrow a failed gov't.

Galen

• Who: Ancient Greek physician; dominated medieval medicine

• Key Beliefs: "Four Humors" theory; based on animal (not human) dissection; two separate blood systems

Baroque

• 17th-century art style

• Characteristics: Drama, complexity, bold ornamentation, and contrasting elements (often tied to the Counter-Reformation)

Caravaggio

Italian painter noted for his realistic depiction of religious subjects and his novel use of light

Bernini

Italian sculptor and architect of the Baroque period in Italy

Rubens

Prolific Flemish baroque painter

Physico-theology

The argument that God's existence is proven by the evidence of design in the natural world (i.e., science supports religion).

Heliocentric Theory

• Sun-centered belief famously proposed by Copernicus due to retrograde motion

• Argued against geocentric view & conflicted w/ Church

Scientific Societies (e.g., Royal Society of London)

• State-sponsored institutions where scientists could collaborate, share, and debate new ideas, promoting scientific progress

• Usually to literate & elite classes

Witch Hunts (Causes & End)

• Causes: Religious division/wars, misogyny, state-building (demonstrating power for Church/state).

• End: Growing stability and the rise of a scientific worldview (reason over superstition).

What were the main causes of the Scientific Revolution?

• Medieval universities (new scholarship)

• Renaissance (patronage, focus on classics, new art techniques)

• Printing press (spread ideas)

• Agricultural improvements (e.g. Agr Revolution)

• Age of Exploration (new data, new problems to solve)

Compare the Ptolemaic vs. Copernican view of the universe.

• Ptolemaic: Geocentric (Earth-centered); used "epicycles" (mini-circles) to explain planetary motion.

• Copernican: Heliocentric (Sun-centered); explained retrograde motion by Earth's own rotation and orbit.

How did Kepler's theories conflict with the Catholic Church?

His laws (elliptical orbits, non-uniform speeds) contradicted the Church's doctrine of a perfect, unchanging, divine universe with "perfect" circular motion.

Why was Galileo condemned by the Catholic Church?

• Discoveries: Used the telescope to find "imperfections" in the heavens (moon's mountains, sunspots).

• Conflict: He publicly supported the Copernican (heliocentric) theory, which contradicted Church doctrine and the authority of scripture.

How did Descartes apply scientific methods to philosophy?

• He emphasized Deductive Reasoning (reason/power of mind).

• Method: Systematic doubt (question everything) to find a single, certain truth: "I think, therefore I am."

What was the impact of the Scientific Revolution?

• Weakened the power of traditional authorities (Church, ancient thinkers).

• Led to the Enlightenment (applying reason to society).

• Established the Scientific Method.

• Provided the foundation for new technologies (later, the Industrial Revolution).

Why were women largely excluded from the Scientific Revolution?

• Lacked education (excluded from universities).

• Barred from scientific societies (like the Royal Society).

• Traditional views on domestic gender roles.

How could one account for the witchcraft phenomena in the late 16th and early 17th centuries in an age of scientific enlightenment?

Account: Religious division, warfare, misogyny.

New discoveries led to ppl questioning world.

New science justified misogyny

Inductive Reasoning (Empiricism)

The process of drawing general conclusions from specific observations/experiments. (Bacon's method)

Deductive Reasoning (Rationalism)

The process of reaching specific conclusions from reasons/self-evident truths. (Descartes' method)

William Harvey (Medicine)

• Author of On the Motion of the Heart and Blood

• Demonstrated the circulation of blood (heart, not liver, is the starting point) via experimentation

• Contradicted Galen

George Frideric Handel (Art)

Baroque composer known for his performances in front of royalty/nobility

Paracelsus (Medicine)

Argued chemical imbalances causes diseases; chemical remedies

Jonathan Swift (Writer)

Satirist who was pessimistic abt scientific progress & satirized impractical science