Key Concepts in U.S. Government and Civil Rights

Covenant

A formal agreement or contract between groups or individuals, often religious or political.

Compact

An agreement among individuals or groups, especially for mutual benefit; early form of self-government.

Quartering Act

Law requiring colonists to house and supply British troops.

Delegate Representation

Elected representatives act according to the wishes of their constituents.

Trustee Representation

Elected representatives use their own judgment to make decisions.

Mercantilism

Economic policy that colonies exist to benefit the mother country through controlled trade.

First Continental Congress

1774 meeting of colonies to oppose British policies.

Second Continental Congress

1775 meeting that managed the Revolutionary War and adopted the Declaration of Independence.

Shays' Rebellion

1786 revolt showing weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation.

James Madison

Considered the 'Architect of the Constitution'.

Constitution

The supreme law of the United States establishing national government structure and powers.

Articles of Confederation

The first U.S. constitution, which created a weak national government.

Virginia Plan

Plan favoring large states with representation based on population.

New Jersey Plan

Plan favoring small states with equal representation.

The Great Compromise

Agreement creating a bicameral Congress (House by population, Senate equal).

Three-Fifth Compromise

Agreement to count enslaved people as 3/5 for representation.

Electoral College

Body that formally elects the U.S. president.

Federalism

System of government dividing powers between national and state levels.

Supremacy Clause

Federal law takes precedence over state law.

Commerce Clause

Gives Congress the power to regulate trade.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Gives Congress implied powers.

10th Amendment

Reserves powers not given to federal government to the states.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

Requires states to respect other states' laws.

Dual Federalism

Clear division between national and state powers (layer cake).

Cooperative Federalism

National and state governments share powers (marble cake).

Contested Federalism

Disputes over boundaries of state and federal powers.

New Federalism

Effort to return powers to states.

Progressive Federalism

Allows states to have different policies in certain areas.

Devolution

Transfer of powers from federal to state government.

Preemption

Federal law overrides or precludes state law.

Unfunded Mandate

Federal requirements without accompanying funds.

Grants-in-Aid

Federal money given to states.

Block Grant

Federal funds given to states for broad purposes.

Marbury v. Madison

Established judicial review.

Ogden

Strengthened federal power over interstate commerce.

Barron v. Baltimore

Ruled Bill of Rights applied only to federal government.

Gitlow v. New York

Began selective incorporation of Bill of Rights.

Powell v. Alabama

Recognized right to counsel in death penalty cases.

Miranda v. Arizona

Established Miranda rights.

Dobbs v. Jackson

Overturned Roe v. Wade.

Roe v. Wade

Recognized right to abortion (now overturned).

Bill of Rights

First 10 Amendments protecting individual freedoms.

14th Amendment

Provides equal protection and due process; basis for incorporation.

Selective Incorporation

Applying parts of the Bill of Rights to states through the 14th Amendment.

Establishment Clause

Prohibits government-established religion.

Free Exercise Clause

Protects the right to practice religion.

Clear and Present Danger

Test to limit speech if it incites harm.

Imminent Lawless Action

Modern standard for restricting speech.

Symbolic Expression

Nonverbal expression protected under the First Amendment.

Fighting Words

Unprotected speech inciting violence.

Prior Restraint

Government censorship before publication.

Miller Test

Defines obscenity in speech/expression.

Grand Jury

Determines if sufficient evidence exists for trial.

Double Jeopardy

Prevents being tried twice for the same offense.

Exclusionary Rule

Illegally obtained evidence is inadmissible.

Miranda Warning

Informs suspects of their rights upon arrest.

Civil Rights

Government-protected rights ensuring equal treatment.

Civil Liberties

Freedoms protected from government interference.

Jim Crow Laws

Laws enforcing racial segregation.

De jure Discrimination

Discrimination enforced by law.

De facto Discrimination

Discrimination in practice, not law.

Plessy v. Ferguson

'Separate but equal' doctrine.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

Declared African Americans not citizens.

Emancipation Proclamation

Freed slaves in Confederate states.

Reconstruction

Post-Civil War effort to rebuild and integrate Southern states.

Great Migration

Movement of African Americans to Northern cities.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Outlawed segregation and job discrimination.

Affirmative Action

Policies to address past discrimination.

Seneca Falls Convention

First women's rights convention (1848).

NOW

National Organization for Women.

ERA

Proposed Equal Rights Amendment for gender equality.

Chicanismo

Latino cultural and political empowerment movement.

UFW

United Farm Workers labor union.

Freedom Riders

Civil rights activists challenging segregation in interstate travel.

NAACP

Civil rights organization using legal challenges.

EEOC

Agency enforcing laws against workplace discrimination.

Section 504

Prohibits disability discrimination in federally funded programs.