Chapter 13 Reformation

Why did Henry VIII pass the Act of Supremacy?

To annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, marry Anne Boleyn, and pursue a male heir.

Council of Trent, 1545–1563

Catholic council that reaffirmed doctrine, addressed corruption, and strengthened the Counter-Reformation.

What did the Council of Trent reaffirm?

Scripture and tradition, faith and good works, and the seven sacraments.

How did the Council of Trent address corruption?

Reduced indulgence abuses, created seminaries, and required bishops to live in their dioceses.

Martin Luther

German monk and theologian who challenged Catholic authority and began the Protestant Reformation.

Justification by faith

Salvation comes through faith, not by earning it through good works.

Luther’s view of religious authority

The Bible was the highest authority, not the Pope.

Indulgence Controversy

Tetzel sold indulgences in 1517, prompting Luther to challenge the practice.

Ninety-Five Theses, 1517

Luther’s criticism of indulgence abuses that helped begin the Protestant Reformation.

Leipzig Debate, 1519

Debate with Johann Eck that pushed Luther further from Catholic authority.

Diet of Worms, 1521

Luther refused to recant; he was declared a heretic and outlaw.

Edict of Worms

Declared Luther a heretic and outlaw after he refused to recant.

How did Luther escape capture?

Frederick the Wise hid Luther at Wartburg Castle.

Luther at Wartburg Castle

Translated the New Testament into German, spreading Protestant ideas.

How did printing help Luther?

Bibles, pamphlets, sermons, and images spread his ideas widely.

Peasants’ War, 1520s

Peasant revolts across Germany driven by economic and social grievances.

Why did Luther oppose the Peasants’ War?

He supported the princes and believed rulers received authority from God.

Johann von Staupitz

Luther’s Catholic mentor who emphasized salvation through God’s mercy.

Staupitz’s view of salvation

Salvation depended on God’s mercy, not human merit.

John Calvin

French Protestant theologian who became a major Protestant leader.

Calvin’s view of salvation

Salvation comes through faith.

Predestination

God had already chosen who would be saved or damned.

Why did predestination encourage Calvinist activism?

Calvinists saw disciplined religious behavior as evidence of faith.

Calvinist sacraments

Baptism and the Lord’s Supper.

Calvin’s view of the Lord’s Supper

Christ was spiritually present, not physically present.

Geneva under Calvin

Major Protestant center where Calvinism was taught and spread.

Consistory

Church body that enforced moral discipline and doctrine.

Ignatius of Loyola

Founder of the Jesuits and major Catholic Reformation leader.

Jesuits

Society of Jesus that fought Protestantism through education and missions.

Spiritual Exercises

Jesuit guide for spiritual growth and obedience to the Catholic Church.

Jesuits and Protestantism

Opposed Protestantism through education, missions, and Catholic defense.

Elizabeth I’s religious policy

Sought religious compromise between Catholics and Protestants.

Elizabethan Religious Settlement

Created a moderate English religious settlement between Catholicism and Protestantism.

Act of Uniformity

Standardized English church services.

Thirty-Nine Articles

Defined Church of England theology between Lutheran and Calvinist ideas.

Who opposed Elizabeth’s settlement?

Catholics and Puritans, for different reasons.

Elizabeth I’s foreign policy

Used cautious, indirect support for European Protestants.

Henry of Navarre

Protestant leader who converted to Catholicism and became king of France.

Why did Henry of Navarre convert?

To secure the French throne and promote religious stability.

Edict of Nantes, 1598

Gave French Huguenots religious and political protections.

French Wars of Religion

Conflicts between French Catholics and Protestant Huguenots.

Luther as the German Hercules

Woodcut showing Luther defeating Catholic corruption and scholasticism.

What does Luther’s club represent?

Rejection of medieval scholastic theology.

How does German Hercules portray the Pope?

As defeated by Luther, symbolizing rejection of papal authority.

German nationalism in German Hercules

Portrayed Luther as a German champion of Protestantism.

Spanish Inquisition under Philip II

Suppressed Protestant networks and enforced Catholicism.

What did the Spanish Inquisition report demonstrate?

Spain used religious enforcement to suppress Protestantism.

Religion and government in Spain

The Inquisition linked Catholic conformity with loyalty to the state.

Protestant Reformation

Movement challenging Catholic authority that created Protestant churches.

Catholic Reformation

Catholic reforms responding to Protestant challenges.

Counter-Reformation

Catholic response to Protestantism through reform, education, and missions.

Luther vs. Calvin

Both stressed faith; Calvin emphasized predestination and church discipline.

Act of Supremacy vs. Elizabethan Settlement

Henry broke with Rome; Elizabeth later created a moderate religious settlement.

Council of Trent vs. Protestant Reformation

Trent reaffirmed Catholic doctrine and addressed abuses challenged by Protestants.