genpsych final exam - J

social loafing

reductions in motivations and effort when individuals work collectively in a group

deindividuation

psychological state characterized by reduced self-awareness and social identity

• increased feeling of anonymity

• decreased responsibility

• follow norms of group

group polarization

tendency of groups to make more extreme decisions than do individuals alone

groupthink

pattern in group decision-making in which members assume their decision will be correct

• collective state of mind, group members unwilling to hear dissenting views

prejudice

a hostile, negative attitude toward a distinguishable group of people (how we feel)

stereotype

a generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of group (how we think)

discrimination

differential actions toward members of specific social groups (how we act)

explicit prejudice

prejudice that can be overtly expressed

implicit prejudice

prejudice that the individual may not be aware of, cannot overly express

implicit association test

measures implicit prejudice by assessing how quickly people associate certain social groups with positive or negative concepts

just-world phenomenon

blaming the victim - tendency to blame individuals (make dispositional attributes) for being a target
ex) robbed → “victim is careless”

how does just-world phenomenon explain prejudice?

it shows how people use dispositional attributions to justify inequality and negative treatment of certain groups
ex) high poverty: “poor due to lack of effort”

realistic conflict theory

idea that competition for limited resources lead to conflict between groups and results in increased prejudice and discrimination

how does realistic conflict theory explain prejudice

competition increases intergroup conflict, sees eachother as threat → negative stereotypes, discrimination

Sherif’s Robber’s Cave Experiment

22 boys at summer camp separated in 2 groups
groups competed for prizes
→ increased intergroup hostility, aggression, cooperation reduces prejudice

social identity theory

individuals self-esteem partially depends on identifying with social groups (favor own group, devalue others)

in-group bias (favoritism)

positive feelings/behaviors toward ppl in our in-group

minimal groups

groups united by trivial similarities, meaningless criteria

minimal group experiment (Tajfel, 1971)

Participants randomly assigned to groups based on trivial criteria (e.g., art preference), asked to allocate money/points to all members
→ consistently gave more money ingroup, even with no personal gain
= mere labeling → prej/disc > competition

Jane Elliot: blue-eyed and brown-eyed experiment

children divided based on eye color, blue told superior, brown told inferior
→ superior = dominant, confident, discriminatory
→ inferior = lower-self-esteem, anxiety

= labels!, harms performance, bias is situational

How does categorization explain stereotyping?

our limited-capacity brains automatically classify info/group people into categories
→ overestimate similarities within a group and exaggerate differences between groups
ex) teenagers = irresponsible (but varies)

How does the confirmation bias explain stereotyping?

tendency to notice and rmb events that are consistent with our existing beliefs
ex) “aggressive” group: aggressive act = proof, non-aggressive act = overlooked

contact hypothesis - supported?

prejudice can be reduced through direct contact between members of different groups
→ YES. Research shows contact reduces prejudice, particularly when involving cooperative interdependence

cooperative interdependence

relationship in which the outcomes of multiple ppl or groups depend on each others’ actions

How did Sherif reduce prejudice in the Robber’s Cave study?

by introducing superordinate goals that required cooperation between the two groups
ex) Fixing the camp’s broken water supply, pulling a stuck truck together

 jigsaw classroom

teaching method to eliminate competition and introduce cooperation
→ students in separate groups, each with unique skill/info, must cooperate to succeed

 drive theory of aggression

aggression(harm inflicted on others) results from situations that stimulate an internal motive to harm others, aggressive drive in us (no proof)

 catharsis — Does it reduce aggression?

notion that expressing aggression or watching others engage in aggression reduces future aggression → not supported
BUT: commiting/watching aggression increases tendency towards future aggression

frustration-aggression hypothesis

frustration increases probability of aggressive behavior

social learning theory

aggression is learned by observatio

How do similarity and proximity predict liking?

because we are more attracted to people who share our attitudes/values/characteristics; ppl who are physically/psychologically close to us

mere exposure effect
- How has this been demonstrated in studies (e.g., students shown pictures of faces)?

repeated exposure to a person or increases liking for person
→ students shown pictures of unfamiliar faces, more frequently seen ones rated as more likable

mirror-image study

ppl tend to prefer mirror images of their own faces (what they see most often) over true photographs = familiarity drives attraction

bystander effect

the presence of other ppl makes it less likely that anyone will help a stranger in distress

why does bystander effect occur?

1. diffusion of responsibility: presence of others makes individual feel less personally responsible
   → seizure study

2. pluralistic ignorance: bystanders assume nothing is wrong in emergency, cuz other bystanders dont seem concerned
   → smoke-filled room study

3. evaluation apprehension: concern :about social approval/disapproval (fear of judgement)

= more ppl - no action

psychoanalytic perspective of personality?
main 2 factors in development of personality?

Sigmund Freud:
personality → unconscious processes (unaware impulses/wishes/memories affecting behavior) & early childhood experiences

id

most primitive part of personality: basic biological impulses&drives, pleasure principles
ex) toddler seeing cookie, immediately grabs
“i want it now”

superego

internalized morals and values of society
→ conscience: from parents, religion, culture
ex) consider cheating on test but guilty
discomfort: superego

ego

delays fulfillment of impulses until situation is appropriate (rational decision-maker)
→ mediates id&superego, reality principle
ex) hungry(id) but rude to eat in class(superego)
→ “ill wait till lunch”: ego

psychosexual stages

theory of personality development reflecting conflict between child’s desire for pleasure and social expectations

Freud’s first 3 psychosexual stages?

oral, anal, phallic

oral
→ oral fixation

birth-18m
explore world through mouth, dependence/trust
→ if needs(fed, comfort) are met, child develops trust
oral fixation: depend on ppl too much or not depend at all, always wanting to put things in mouth

anal
→ anal fixations

18m-3yrs
conflict with parents about compliance/defiance, attitudes towards order/disorder ex) toilet training
self-control, discipline
anal fixation:
punished harshly → overly neat, perfectionist
too relaxed → messy, disorganized

Phallic
→ What is the Oedipus complex?

3-6yrs
→ oedipus complex: boy desires exclusive relationship with mother, but cant because father is in the way (father: rivalry, mother: desire - greek legend)
→ identification with father (boys): similarity & connectedness

Freud’s defense mechanisms

unconscious mental processes used to protect self from unpleasant emotions

Repression

thoughts that are too anxiety-provoking to acknowledge are blocked from consciousness
ex) forgets pain/trauma memory but may still feel negative behaviors toward related

Projection

person attributes his/her own unacknowledged feelings/impulses to other people
ex) ur angry at someone but claims they’re angry at u, ur jealous but claims ur partner is

Rationalization

generating explanations for behaviors in an apprently logical way to avoid discomfort
ex) failing test: “test was unfair”, rejected from job": “didnt want the job anyway”

Displacement

directing emotions toward others that are not the real object of their feelings
ex) person angry at boss so yells at dog, student mad at teacher slam doors

Denial

refusing to acknowledge realities or emotions

Sublimation

transforming unacceptable impulses into acceptable behaviors
ex) aggression → tackle in football

psychological determinism

all thoughts, emotions, behaviors have causes often rooted in unsatisfied drives/unconscious wishes

Freudian slips:

mistakes in speech/writing/memory that reveals a person’s unconscious thoughts/feelings/desires

projective tests

present ambiguous stimulus to which person responds/interpret (assumption: reveal unconscious thoughts)

Rorschach inkblot tests

individual views a set of inkblots and tells what each inkblot resembles
ex) a bat; two ppl fighting → therapist look for patterns that reveal inner conflicts/feelings/traits

humanistic perspective of personality

views personality as shaped by people’s inherent drive toward growth, self fulfilment and self-actualization (Abraham Maslow)

Rogers’s concepts of empathy and unconditional positive regard

empathy: capacity to understand another person’s experience cognitively/emotionally
→ therapists listening and reflecting
unconditional positive regard: being given the sense that individual is valued by parents and others
→ accepting/valuing someone without conditions ex) “im disappointed, but still love you”

Big Five traits

openness to experience(imaginative, curious), conscientiousness(organized, dependable, disciplined), extraversion(sociable, assertive), agreeableness(cooperative, empathetic), neuroticism(worrying, prone to anxiety, emotional instability)

DSM

diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
→ used to make clinical diagnoses

labeling theory

labeling individuals a society considers deviant, can influence how others treat them and how they see themselves

Rosenhan’s study

rosenhan and 7 others admitted to psychiatric hospitals, faked symptoms of schizophrenia
→ inside hospital, they acted normal, BUT staff views them as diagnosed so records normal actions as “symptoms”

anxiety disorders

characterized by intense, frequent, continuous anxiety

generalized anxiety disorder

global, persistent, chronic, excessive anxiety
→ constant sense of tension and fear "(“free-floating anxiety”)

panic disorder

attacks of extreme fear (panic attacks) that are out of proportion to what the situation calls for

phobias

irrational fear of a specific object or situation (ex. fear of flying)

social anxiety disorder

intense fear of being in social or performance situation

obsessive-compulsive disorder

recurrent obsessions/compulsions that cause distress and significantly interfere with an individual life

obsessions and compulsions

obsessions: persistent thoughts; compulsions: behaviors that must be performed

major depressive disorder

feelings of extreme sadness, emptiness; thoughts of hopelessness

bipolar disorder
→ mania

extreme mood swings, alternating between depression and mania
→ mania: period of abnormally euphoric mood, increased energy

schizophrenia

severe disorder of thought, emotion, perception associated with psychotic symptoms

psychotic symptoms

experiencing a loss of touch/contact with reality

delusions

strongly held, fixed beliefs that have no basis in reality
ex) thinking they’re watched/followed, believing in unique powers/missions

hallucinations

sensory perceptions that distort or are experienced in the absence an external stimulus
ex) auditory, visual, etc.

schizophrenia: disorganized speech
→ world salad

skips from topic to topic
→ world salad: words thrown together without logical order

 schizophrenia: catatonic symptoms

motor problems
ex) not moving at all, rigid posture, purposeless/excessive movement

schizophrenia: positive and negative symptoms

positive symptoms: presence of something not usually there (extra unneeded behaviors) ex) delusions, hallucinations
negative symptoms: absence/missing of something
ex) flat affect(showing little/no emotion), expressionless faces

dissociative identity disorder

at least 2 separate and distinct personalities within the same person, with disruptions in memory, consciousness, and sense of identity
→ formerly known as multiple personality disorder

personality disorders

personality traits that are inflexible and maladaptive(dysfunctional) across a broad range of situations

borderline personality disorder

extreme variability in mood, relationships, self-perceptions
ex) misinterpret others’ actions as signs of abandonment/rejection

narcissistic personality disorder

grandiose(idea that someone is exceptionally important, powerful, far beyond truth) sense of self-importance; exaggeration of abilities/accomplishments; need for excessive admiration

 psychoanalytic therapy

method with goal of making patient aware of unconscious processes

 psychoanalytic therapy: dream interpretation

reveal hidden meaning/symbols in dreams

psychoanalytic therapy: free association

patient says whatever comes to mind
→ slips of speech/random thoughts: all with meaning!

humanistic therapy

emphasizes realization of human potential in a supportive environment

important qualities of Rogers’s person-centered therapy (e.g., unconditional positive regard)

empathy, unconditional positive regard(complete acceptance/non-judgement), reflection(therapist paraphrase/reflect client words - clients gain clarity on own thoughts)

behavioral therapy

addresses maladaptive behavior with learning and conditioning principles
→ “behaviors can be learned and unlearned”

 classical conditioning methods: exposure therapy

confronts clients with what they fear
→ reduces anxiety by showing fear is not dangerous

classical conditioning methods: flooding

client confronts the feared stimulus all at once (intense but quick solution)

classical conditioning methods: systematic desensitization

client taught to relax as they are gradually exposed to what they fear
→ uses counterconditioning (replacing fear response for relaxation)

operant conditioning methods: token economy

desirable behaviors are rewarded with tokens that patients can exchange for rewards
→ operant: use reinforcement (increased desired behavior) and punishment (decrease unwanted behavior)

cognitive therapy

focuses on thought processes that are the basis of psychological symptoms; events itself < way we think about the events
→ Aaron Beck: emphasized automatic, irrational thoughts - therapists questions client’s distorted beliefs and replaces with realistic balanced thoughts

cognitive-behavioral therapy

combination of cognitive and behavior therapies:
→ identifies automatic irrational thoughts (cognitive) + focus on changing thoughts&behavior (behavioral)

Is psychotherapy effective?

yes, all are effective than no therapy
→ cognitive-behavioral therapy researched as better established than other forms

What drugs are used to treat schizophrenia?

antipsychotic medications (dopamine antagonists)
→ effective for delusions, hallucinations
→ side effects: tremors, weight gain, muscle stiffness

What drugs are used to treat anxiety?

anti-anxiety medications (GABA agonists)
→ useful for short-term (calm jittery feelings, relax muscles), antidepressant medications used too

What drugs are used to treat depression?

anti-depressant medications
→ most common: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), increase serotonin

What drugs are used to treat bipolar disorder?

mood stabilizers (ex. lithium)
→ atypical antipsychotics: often used to treat mania

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

brief burst of electric current to induce controlled seizure in brain
→ more effective than antidepressant drugs
→ side effect: memory loss

What is the life change approach to measuring stress?  Is life change associated with health?

measures stress by summing major life events that require adaptation
→ higher life change scores are linked to an increased risk of illness