Unit 0: Foundations (Research Methods and Data Interpretation) Vocabulary

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards for Unit 0: Foundations (Research Methods and Data Interpretation), covering psychological perspectives, scientific research methods, ethical guidelines, and statistics.

Innate

Inborn or present at birth; traits, behaviors, or characteristics that are genetically inherited rather than acquired through learning or experience.

Empiricism

The idea that knowledge comes from experience, observation, and experimentation, forming the foundation of scientific inquiry in psychology.

Psychoanalytic/ Psychodynamic perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes the influence of unconscious drives, desires, and childhood experiences on human behavior and personality.

Conscious

The state of being aware of internal thoughts, feelings, memories, and external surroundings at any given moment.

Cognitive perspective

A psychological approach focusing on mental processes such as thinking, perceiving, remembering, decision-making, and problem-solving.

Behavioral perspective

A psychological approach emphasizing observable behaviors and the ways they are learned through conditioning and interaction with the environment.

Conditioning

The process of learning associations between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses.

Humanistic perspective

A psychological approach that emphasizes individual growth potential, personal agency, free will, and the drive toward self-actualization.

Self actualization

According to humanistic psychology, the ultimate psychological need to fulfill one's potential and achieve personal growth.

Biological perspective

A psychological approach that explores the links between biological processes (such as genetics, brain structures, and neural mechanisms) and psychological events or behaviors.

Sociocultural perspective

A psychological approach that examines how social environments, cultural norms, and background influence individual behavior and thinking.

Biopsychosocial perspective

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis to explain behavior and mental processes.

Critical thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions, but instead examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Cognitive biases

Systematic errors or patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment and decision-making.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen or predicted it (also known as the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon).

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct, overestimating the accuracy of one's beliefs, knowledge, or predictions.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory, that specifies relationships between variables.

Falsifiable

The property of a theory or hypothesis that allows it to be proven false through empirical observation or testing.

Operational definitions

Precise statements of the exact procedures or measures used to define research variables in a specific study.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Peer review

The evaluation of scientific or academic work by independent experts in the same field to ensure quality and validity before publication.

Case study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Survey

A descriptive technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative sample.

Wording effect

The subtle influence that the choice or phrasing of words in a question or survey can have on respondents' answers.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others or align with social norms.

Self-report bias

A bias occurring when research participants provide inaccurate or dishonest responses about themselves due to memory errors, social pressure, or self-perception.

Likert scales

Rating scales used in surveys to measure attitudes or reactions by asking respondents to indicate their level of agreement on a continuum.

Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a larger population to participate in a research study.

Population

All the individuals in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Representative sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics and diversity of the larger target population.

Sampling bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample of a population.

Convenience sampling

A non-probability sampling technique where participants are selected based on their easy accessibility and proximity to the researcher.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings from a research sample can be applied or generalized to the broader target population.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other.

Positive correlation

A relationship between two variables in which both variables move in the same direction (as one increases, the other increases).

Negative correlation

A relationship between two variables in which one variable increases while the other decreases.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ that measures the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables, used to display the strength and direction of a correlation.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables where none exists, or perceiving a stronger relationship than actually exists.

Directionality problem

A problem in correlational research where two variables are related, but it is impossible to determine which variable causes changes in the other.

Regression toward the mean

The statistical phenomenon in which extreme or unusual scores tend to fall back or regress toward their average on subsequent testing.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable while controlling other variables.

Variables

Any factors, traits, or conditions that can exist in differing amounts or types and can be measured or manipulated in research.

Independent variable

The factor in an experiment that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to study its effect.

Dependent variable

The outcome factor in an experiment that is measured to determine the effect of changes in the independent variable.

Experimental group/ Experimental condition

The group of participants in an experiment who are exposed to the treatment or independent variable being tested.

Control group/ Control condition

The group of participants in an experiment who do not receive the experimental treatment, serving as a baseline for comparison.

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because every member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between the groups.

Single-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which the research participants are unaware of whether they have received the treatment or a placebo, but the experimenter knows.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are unaware of whether the participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

Placebo

An inactive substance or fake treatment (such as a pill without active medication) given to participants in a control group.

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition.

Confounding variable/ Third variable problem

An extraneous factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment or account for an observed correlation.

Experimenter bias

A phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences unintentionally influence the outcome of a study or the interpretation of results.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure or predict.

Quantitative research

Research that collects and analyzes numerical data to quantify variables, identify patterns, and test hypotheses using statistical methods.

Qualitative research

Research that collects non-numerical data (such as text, video, or interviews) to understand concepts, opinions, or subjective experiences.

Structured interviews

A research interview technique in which all participants are asked the exact same set of predetermined questions in the same order.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

An ethics committee that reviews proposed research studies involving human participants to ensure ethical standards are met and subjects are protected.

Research Confederates

Individuals who act as unwitting participants or bystanders in a research study but are actually part of the research team.

Informed consent

Giving potential research participants sufficient information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Informed assent

The agreement of a minor or an individual incapable of giving full legal consent to participate in a study, obtained in addition to legal consent from a guardian.

Protect from harm

An ethical requirement in research stating that investigators must minimize potential physical or psychological harm to participants.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, given to participants after the study concludes.

Deception / Deceit

Misleading research participants about the true purpose or nature of an experiment, permissible only when justified and followed by debriefing.

Confidentiality

The ethical principle that personal information gathered during research must be kept private and protected from unauthorized access.