Buffers help maintain a stable pH in biological systems.
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significance of carbon in chemistry
Carbon can form four bonds, making complex molecules.
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4 biological macromolecules
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.
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chemical composition of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).
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chemical composition of proteins
Proteins are made of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N).
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functional groups
Groups of atoms that affect a molecule's behavior (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxyl).
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monomers and polymers
Monomers are the building blocks (e.g., monosaccharides); Polymers are chains of monomers (e.g., polysaccharides).
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dehydration synthesis
A process that removes water to build molecules.
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hydrolysis
A process that adds water to break molecules.
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monosaccharides
Simple sugars such as glucose and fructose.
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disaccharides
Two sugars, examples include sucrose and lactose.
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polysaccharides
Many sugars, examples include starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
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isomers
Molecules with the same formula but different structures (e.g., glucose vs. fructose).
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difference between cellulose and chitin
Both are structural carbohydrates; cellulose is found in plants, and chitin is found in fungi and insects.
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difference between DNA and RNA
DNA stores genetic information while RNA helps make proteins.
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structure of an amino acid
An amino acid contains an R group that defines its properties.
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four levels of protein structure
Primary: Amino acid sequence; Secondary: Helix or sheet; Tertiary: 3D shape; Quaternary: Multiple protein units.
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difference between saturated and unsaturated fats
Saturated fats are solid with single bonds; unsaturated fats are liquid with double bonds.
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lipids
Hydrophobic molecules like fats, oils, and phospholipids.
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lipids vs. starches in energy storage
Lipids store more energy per gram than starches.
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why are cells small
Larger surface area helps transport materials efficiently.
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function of the plasma membrane
It controls what enters and exits the cell.
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cell theory
Cells come from existing cells.
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difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells are simple and lack a nucleus (e.g., bacteria); Eukaryotic cells are complex and have a nucleus (e.g., animals, plants).
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functions of eukaryotic organelles
Nucleus: DNA storage; Ribosomes: Make proteins; ER: Processes molecules; Golgi: Packages proteins; Mitochondria: Energy production; Lysosomes: Break down waste.
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role of the cytoskeleton
It provides structure to the cell.
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differences between plant and animal cells
Plant cells have cell walls, chloroplasts, and vacuoles, while animal cells do not.
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endosymbiotic theory
It suggests that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from free-living prokaryotes that entered into a symbiotic relationship with a host cell.
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