Unit I - General + Bones

What is the anatomical position?

The standard reference position where the body is standing upright, facing forward, arms at the sides, palms facing forward, and feet directed forward.

Why is the anatomical position important?

It provides a consistent reference point for describing locations and movements of body structures.

What are the common body positions used in anatomy?

Supine, prone, right lateral, and left lateral positions.

What does supine position mean?

Lying face upward with the back against the surface.

What does prone position mean?

Lying face downward with the front of the body against the surface.

What are the four major anatomical planes?

Median (midsagittal), sagittal, coronal (frontal), and transverse (horizontal/axial).

What is the midsagittal (median) plane?

A vertical plane dividing the body into equal right and left halves.

What is a sagittal plane?

A vertical plane dividing the body into right and left portions but not necessarily equal halves.

What is the coronal (frontal) plane?

A vertical plane dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.

What is the transverse (horizontal/axial) plane?

A horizontal plane dividing the body into superior and inferior portions.

What does anterior mean?

Toward the front of the body.

What does posterior mean?

Toward the back of the body.

What does superior mean?

Toward the head or upper part of the body.

What does inferior mean?

Toward the feet or lower part of the body.

What does central mean?

Toward the center of the body or structure.

What does peripheral mean?

Toward the outer surface or away from the center.

What does median mean?

Located at or near the middle line of the body.

What does medial mean?

Toward the median plane of the body.

What does lateral mean?

Away from the median plane.

What does intermediate mean?

Located between medial and lateral structures.

What does superficial mean?

Closer to the surface of the body or skin.

What does deep mean?

Away from the surface and closer to internal structures.

What does external mean?

Toward the outside or surface.

What does internal mean?

Toward the inside or away from the surface.

What does ventral mean?

Toward the front or belly side.

What does dorsal mean?

Toward the back side.

What does cranial/rostral mean?

Toward the head; commonly used in brain anatomy.

What does caudal mean?

Toward the tail or lower end; also used in brain anatomy.

What does palmar mean?

Toward the palm of the hand.

What does plantar mean?

Toward the sole of the foot.

What does interior mean anatomically?

Inside a hollow organ.

What does ipsilateral mean?

Located on the same side of the body.

What does contralateral mean?

Located on the opposite side of the body.

What does bilateral mean?

Present on both sides of the body.

What does proximal mean?

Closer to the trunk or point of attachment.

What does distal mean?

Farther from the trunk or point of attachment.

What does radial refer to?

Toward the lateral side of the forearm/hand (thumb side).

What does ulnar refer to?

Toward the medial side of the forearm/hand (pinky side).

What does tibial refer to?

Toward the medial border of the leg and foot.

What does fibular (peroneal) refer to?

Toward the lateral border of the leg and foot.

What is flexion?

A movement that decreases the angle of a joint.

In what plane does flexion usually occur?

Sagittal plane around a transverse axis.

What is extension?

A movement that increases the angle of a joint.

What is abduction?

Movement away from the body's midline.

What is adduction?

Movement toward the body's midline.

What is rotation?

Movement around the long axis of a structure.

What are the two types of rotation?

Medial rotation and lateral rotation.

What is circumduction?

A circular movement combining flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction.

What is supination?

Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces upward/anteriorly.

What is pronation?

Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces downward/posteriorly.

What is inversion of the foot?

Movement where the sole of the foot turns inward medially.

What is eversion of the foot?

Movement where the sole of the foot turns outward laterally.

What is plantar flexion?

Ankle movement where the sole of the foot moves inferiorly (pointing toes downward).

What is dorsiflexion?

Ankle movement where the dorsal surface of the foot moves upward toward the leg.

What is protraction/protrusion?

Forward movement of a body part (example: scapula or mandible).

What is retraction/retrusion?

Backward movement of a body part.

What is elevation?

Superior movement of a structure.

What is depression?

Inferior movement of a structure.

What is radial deviation?

Movement of the hand toward the radius/lateral side.

What is ulnar deviation?

Movement of the hand toward the ulna/medial side.

What are the four main layers associated with skin organization?

Epidermis, dermis, superficial fascia, and deep fascia.

What type of tissue makes up the epidermis?

Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

Is the epidermis vascular?

No, it is avascular.

How do epidermal cells receive nutrients?

Through diffusion from underlying tissues.

What nerves are present in the epidermis?

Free nerve endings only.

What are the layers of the epidermis from deep to superficial?

Stratum basale → stratum spinosum → stratum granulosum → stratum lucidum (thick skin only) → stratum corneum.

What is the function of the stratum basale?

Produces new epidermal cells through mitosis.

What is the function of the stratum spinosum?

Provides strength and flexibility through connections between keratinocytes.

What is the function of the stratum granulosum?

Produces keratin and contributes to waterproofing.

What is the function of the stratum lucidum?

Provides additional protection in thick skin.

What is the function of the stratum corneum?

Provides the main protective barrier against friction, pathogens, and water loss.

What is the dermis made of?

Dense fibrous connective tissue.

What structures are found in the dermis?

Blood vessels, nerves, glands, and connective tissue fibers.

What is superficial fascia?

A loose connective tissue layer beneath the skin containing fat, vessels, nerves, and lymphatics.

What is another name for superficial fascia?

Subcutaneous tissue.

What structures are located in superficial fascia?

Superficial veins, arteries, nerves, lymphatics, and skin bursae.

What major vein is found in superficial fascia of the lower limb?

Great saphenous vein.

Where is superficial fascia especially thick?

Palm, sole, and scalp.

Where is superficial fascia thin?

Eyelids and external genitalia.

What is deep fascia?

A dense, tough, inelastic connective tissue membrane surrounding muscles and structures.

What structures does deep fascia form?

Intermuscular septa and retinacula.

What are intermuscular septa?

Extensions of deep fascia that attach to bone and divide muscles into compartments.

What are retinacula?

Thickened extensions of deep fascia that hold tendons in place.

What are lines of Langer?

Skin tension lines created by the arrangement of collagen fibers.

Why are surgical incisions made parallel to Langer lines?

They heal better and produce less scarring.

What are skin ligaments?

Structures that connect superficial fascia/skin to deep fascia.

What are the main roles of fascia?

Protection, support, compartment formation, and organization of body structures.

Why is fascia clinically important?

Because fascia is interconnected, so injury in one area can cause pain or effects elsewhere.

Where is the plantar fascia located?

On the sole of the foot.

What is the function of plantar fascia?

Supports the arch of the foot and provides stability during weight bearing.

What covers the lower limb externally?

Skin, superficial fascia, and deep fascia.

How does deep fascia divide the lower limb?

By sending intermuscular septa to bones, creating compartments.

Why are compartments functionally important?

Each compartment contains muscles, nerves, arteries, and veins that perform related functions.

What are the three compartments of the thigh?

Anterior (extensor), posterior (flexor), and medial (adductor).

What is the main function of the anterior thigh compartment?

Extension movements.

What is the main function of the posterior thigh compartment?

Flexion movements.

What is the main function of the medial thigh compartment?

Adduction movements.

What are the three compartments of the leg?

Anterior (extensor), posterior (flexor), and lateral/fibular (peroneal).

What is the main function of the anterior leg compartment?

Dorsiflexion and toe extension.

What is the main function of the posterior leg compartment?

Plantar flexion.