Chapter 11: Problem Solving & Creativity

Thinking

requires you to go beyond the information you were given, so that you can reach a goal

Problem Solving

refers to the processes necessary to reach a goal, typically in situations where the solution is not immediately obvious

Initial State

situation at the beginning of the problem

Goal State

reached when you solve the problem

Obstacles

restrictions that make it difficult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state

Understanding

means that you have constructed a well-organized mental representation of the problem based on both the information provided in the problem and your own previous experiences

Problem Representation

refers to the way you translate the elements of the problem into a different format

Most Effective Methods of Representing Problems

symbols, matrices, diagrams, mental images

Matrix

grid consisting of rows and columns; shows all possible combinations of items

Diagrams

a drawing with labels that shows the parts of something or how something works

Hierarchical Tree Diagram

figure that uses a tree-like structure to show various possible options in a problem

Graph

most effective kind of diagram for representing visual information during problem solving

Visual Images

allows us to escape from the boundaries of traditional, concrete representations; provides an advantage when a problem requires you to construct a figure

Situated Cognition Approach

we make use of information in the immediate environment or situation to create spatial representations

Embodied Cognition Approach

uses our own body and our own motor actions, in order to express our abstract thoughts and knowledge

Traditional Cognition Approach

emphasizes the processes that take place inside an individual person's head

Ecological Validity

the conditions in which the research is conducted are similar to the natural setting where the results will be applied

Obstacles

Describes the restrictions that make it difficult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state.

Understanding

It means that you have constructed a well-organized mental representation of the problem based on both the information provided and your own previous experience.

Problem Representation

The way you translate elements of the problem into a different format.

Symbols

The most effective way to represent an abstract problem.

Matrix

A grid consisting of rows and columns; it shows all possible combinations of items.

Diagram

allows you to represent abstract information in a concrete fashion.

Hierarchical Tree Diagram

A figure that uses a tree-like structure to show various possible options in a problem.

Graph

most effective kind of diagram for representing visual information during problem solving.

Situated Cognition Approach

In this approach, we often use helpful information in our immediate environment to create spatial relations.

Ecological Validity

A study has_____________if the conditions in which the research is conducted are similar to the natural setting in which the results will be applied.

Embodied Cognition Approach

In this approach, we often use our own body and our own motor actions, in order to express our abstract thoughts and knowledge.

Algorithm

It is a method that will always produce a solution to the problem, although the process can sometimes be inefficient.

Heuristic

It is a general rule that is usually correct.

Analogy Approach

You employ a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help you solve a new problem.

Problems Isomorphs

It refers to a set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions, but different specific details.

Surface Features

It refers to the specific objects and terms used in the question.

Structural Features

It refers to the underlying core that they must understand in order to solve the problem correctly.

Means-End Heuristic

First, you divide the problem into a number of subproblems, or smaller problems, then you try to reduce the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each of the subproblems.

Computer Simulation

Devised to account for the way humans use means-ends analysis to solve well-defined problems.

Computer Simulation

a computer program that will perform a task in the same way that a human would.

Hill-Climbing Heuristic

You consistently choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal.

Bottom-up Processing

It emphasizes the information about the stimulus, as registered on our sensory receptors.

Top-down Processing

It emphasizes our concepts, expectations, and memory, which we have acquired from past experience.

Expertise

An individual who demonstrates consistently exceptional skill and performance on representative tasks for a particular area.

Speed and Accuracy

Experts are much faster than novices at solving a problem in their area of expertise, and they solve problems very accurately.

Parallel Processing

It handles two or more items at the same time.

Serial Processing

It handles only one item at a time.

Mental Set

You keep trying the same solution you used in previous problems, even though you could solve the problem by using a different, easier method.

Fixed Mindset

It is a concept by Carol Dweck. You believe that you possess a certain amount of intelligence and other skills, and that no amount of effort can help you perform better.

Growth Mindset

You believe that you can cultivate your intelligence and other skills.

Functional Fixedness

It refers to the way we think about physical objects & that we tend to assign stable functions to an object.

Gender Stereotypes

Are the beliefs and opinions that we associate with females and males.

Stereotype Threat

if you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype—and you think about your membership in that group—your performance may suffer.

Ethnicity-emphasis Condition

These participants were asked to indicate their ethnicity and then answer several questions about their ethnic identity. Then, they took a challenging math test. These women answered 54% of the questions correctly.

Control-group Condition

A second group of participants did not answer any questions beforehand. They simply took the challenging math test. These women answered 49% of the questions correctly.

Gender-emphasis Condition

A third group of participants were asked to indicate their gender and then answer several questions about their gender identity. Then, they took the challenging math test. These women answered only 43% of the questions correctly.

Insight Problem

The problem initially seems impossible to solve, but then an alternative approach suddenly bursts into your consciousness.

Nonsight Problem

You solve the problem gradually, by using your memory, reasoning skills, and a routine set of strategies.

Creativity

It requires solutions that are both novel and useful.

Creativity includes_______

convergent thinking, as well as divergent thinking

Creativity is associated with many regions within the ________

left and right hemispheres

Extrinsic Motivation

The motivation to work on a task, in order to earn a promised reward to win a competition.

Intrinsic Motivation

The motivation to work on tasks for their own sake, because one finds them interesting, exciting, or personally challenging.

Self-efficacy

The belief that you have the ability to organize and carry out a specific task.

Perseverance

The ability to keep working on a task, even when you encounter obstacles.