Introduction to Psychology: Memory and Learning

A collection of vocabulary flashcards covering key concepts and definitions in memory and learning psychology.

Visual Encoding

Remembering what something looks like.

Acoustic Encoding

Remembering through sound.

Semantic Encoding

Remembering the meaning; considered the strongest form of encoding.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to enhance memory.

Iconic Memory

Visual memory that lasts less than 1 second.

Echoic Memory

Sound memory that lasts for 3 to 4 seconds.

Sensory Memory

Instant, brief snapshots of information.

Short-term Memory

Can hold 7±2 items for approximately 20 seconds.

Working Memory

Holding and manipulating information while using it.

Long-term Memory

Permanent and unlimited storage of information.

Mood-congruent Memory

Better memory recall when one's mood matches the emotional tone of the memories.

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid memories of emotional or shocking events.

Rehearsal

Repeating information to help remember it.

Retrieval Cues

Hints that assist in recalling information.

Encoding

The process of taking in information.

Storage

The act of keeping information.

Retrieval

The process of pulling information out later.

Collaborative Memory

Enhanced memory recall that occurs when groups remember information together.

Semantic Memory

Memory for facts and general knowledge.

Procedural Memory

Memory for skills, a type of implicit memory.

Episodic Memory

Memory for personal experiences.

Explicit Memory

Conscious memories.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memories.

Priming

Exposure to a stimulus influences behavior or thought.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by association involving unconditioned and conditioned stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences, such as reinforcement and punishment.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a good stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing a bad stimulus to increase behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding a bad stimulus to decrease behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a good stimulus to decrease behavior.

Generalization

Responding similarly to stimuli that are similar.

Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between different stimuli.

Extinction

When behavior disappears due to cessation of reinforcement.

Spontaneous Recovery

The return of a previously extinguished behavior after a break.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after a random number of responses.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after a set period of time.

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after random periods of time.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others, as demonstrated by Bandura.

Secure Attachment

Distress when the caregiver leaves and comfort when they return.

Avoidant Attachment

Indifference to caregiver's departure and return.

Ambivalent/Anxious Attachment

Clingy behavior, high levels of distress when separated.

Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage

Covers the concept of object permanence.

Piaget’s Preoperational Stage

Characterized by egocentrism and lack of conservation.

Concrete Operational Stage

Involves understanding conservation.

Formal Operational Stage

Involves abstract thinking.

Conservation

The understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

Centration

Focusing on one aspect of a situation.

Egocentrism

The belief that others see the world as you do.

Schemas

Mental categories that help organize information.

Accommodation

The process of altering a schema to fit new information.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into an existing schema.

Vygotsky's Theory

Emphasizes the importance of social interaction in learning.

Scaffolding

Support provided that is gradually removed as a child learns.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The range of tasks a child can perform with help but not alone.

Social Referencing

Looking to adults for emotional cues.

Joint Attention

When two individuals focus on the same object or event.

Theory of Mind

The understanding that others have thoughts and feelings separate from one's own.

Maternal Smoking Effects

Linked to low birth weight and other developmental issues.

Kohlberg’s Preconventional Stage

Moral reasoning based on punishment and reward.

Kohlberg’s Conventional Stage

Moral reasoning based on adherence to rules and social approval.

Kohlberg’s Postconventional Stage

Moral reasoning based on personal morals.