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Person perception
how we form impressions and make judgments about others
Attribution theory
how people determine the cause of others' behaviors, either internal or external
Fundamental attribution error
tendency to blame others' behavior on their personality rather than the situation
Actor-observer bias
blaming our own actions on the situation but blame others' actions on their personality
Prejudice
negative, unfair opinion on a group of people without knowing them
Stereotype
generalized belief about a group of people
Discrimination
unfair treatment of people based on their group
Just-world phenomenon
belief that people get what they deserve and vice versa
Social identity
part of a person's identity based on being part of a group
Ingroup
group you identify with
Outgroup
group you see as different from yourself
Ingroup bias
favoring people in your group over others
brown-eyes/blue eyes experiment
experiment by Jane Elliott, showing how quickly people can develop prejudice based on arbitrary traits
Scapegoat theory
blaming another group of one's own problems/frustrations
Other-race effect
tendency to recognize faces of one's own race more easily than those of other races
Cognitive dissonance
discomfort felt when our actions don't match our beliefs, leading us to change one to reduce tension
Attitudes
feelings and beliefs that influence how we react to things
Foot-in-the-door
getting someone to agree with a small request first, making them more likely to agree to a bigger one later
Door-in-the-face
asking a big favor first then asking for a smaller one which they are more likely to accept
Role
set of expectations about how a person in a certain position should behave
Persuasion
process of changing someone's beliefs through communication
Peripheral route persuasion
influencing people using superficial cues like attractiveness
Central route persuasion
persuading someone using logical facts
Norms
unwritten rules about how to behave in a group
Conformity
changing behavior to match others
Asche experiments
studies showing people conform to group opinions even when wrong
Normative social influence
conforming to be liked or accepted by others
Informational social influence
conforming because we believe others have more information
Obedience
following orders from an authority figure
Milgram experiment
study showing people obey authority, even when causing harm
Power of disobedience
the impact of resisting authority
Social facilitation
performing better on tasks in the presence of others
Social loafing
putting in less effort when working in a group
Deindividuation
losing self-awareness in a group, leading to impulsive actions
Stanford Prison experiment
study showing how roles affect behavior and power dynamics
Group polarization
groups making more extreme decisions than individuals
Groupthink
poor decision-making in groups due to desire for harmony
Culture
shared beliefs, values, and behaviors of a group
Tight culture
cultures with strict norms and low tolerance for misbehavior
Loose culture
cultures with relaxed norms and high tolerance for misbehavior
Aggression
intent to harm others
Influences on aggression
factors like frustration, environment, and biology
Frustration-aggression principle
frustration leads to aggression
Robber's Cave experiment
Study on group conflict and cooperation among boys
Social script
expected behavior in specific social situations
Altruism
more concern for others' well-being rather than our own
Bystander effect
people are less likely to help when others are present
Kitty Genovese
case highlighting the bystander effect; she was attacked while others watched.
Social exchange theory
people weigh costs and benefits in relationships
Reciprocity norm
expectation to return favors
Social-responsibility norm
belief to help those who need it
Conflict
disagreement or struggle between individuals or groups
Social trap
situation where individuals act in self-interest, leading to harm for all
Mirror-image perceptions
when conflicting groups see each other as the enemy
Self-fulfilling prophecy
beliefs that lead to behaviors that confirm those beliefs
Superordinate goals
shared goals that unite conflicting groups
GRIT
strategy to reduce conflict by encouraging cooperation
Psychodynamic theories
focus on how unconscious thoughts shape personality
Psychoanalysis
Freud's theory that unconscious drives influence behavior
Sigmund Freud
Founder of psychoanalysis, studied the unconscious mind
Unconscious
Hidden thoughts, desires, and memories that affect behavior
Free association
Saying whatever comes to mind with no filter to uncover unconscious thoughts
Id
part of personality driven by desires and impulses
Ego
rational part of personality that balances id and superego
Superego
moral part of personality that enforces rules and values
Psychosocial development
Erikson's theory of personality growth through life stages
Oedipus complex
Freud's idea that boys feel unconscious attraction to their mother
Defense mechanism
way for the mind to protect itself from anxiety
Repression
pushing painful thoughts into the unconscious
Alfred Adler
focused on the need for superiority and overcoming insecurities
Karen Horney
challenged Freud; emphasized social and cultural influences on personality
Carl Jung
developed the idea of the collective unconscious and archetypes
Collective unconscious
Carl Jung's idea that all humans share inherited memories from our ancestors
Archetype
Universal symbols or themes in human culture (e.g., hero, mother)
Modern approaches to the unconscious
Focus on hidden biases and automatic thinking
Terror-management theory
How fear of death affects behavior and beliefs
Rorschach inkblot test
A test using inkblots to reveal unconscious thoughts
Thematic Apperception Test
A test where people create stories about pictures to reveal feelings
Projective test
Tests designed to uncover unconscious thoughts through interpretation
Humanistic theories
Focus on personal growth and self-improvement
Abraham Maslow
Created the hierarchy of needs, leading to self-actualization
Carl Rogers
Emphasized self-concept and unconditional positive regard
Hierarchy of needs
A pyramid of human needs, from basic survival to personal growth
Self-actualization
Reaching one's full potential
Self-transcendence
Going beyond oneself to find meaning and purpose
Unconditional positive regard
Accepting and valuing a person no matter what
Self-concept
How you see and feel about yourself
Trait
A stable personality characteristic
Factor analysis
A statistical method to find patterns in traits
Personality inventory
A questionnaire that measures personality traits
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
A widely used personality test.
Empirically derived test
A test developed by selecting items that show differences between groups.
Big Five factors
Five major personality traits—openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism (OCEAN).
Person-situation controversy
Debate over whether personality or situations influence behavior more.
Social-cognitive perspective
Personality is shaped by thinking and social interactions.
Behavioral approach
Personality is shaped by learning and environment.
Reciprocal determinism
Albert Bandura’s idea that behavior, thoughts, and environment all influence each other.
Self
Your sense of identity.
Spotlight effect
Overestimating how much others notice you.
Self-esteem
How much you value yourself.
