Anthropology 205 - Darrell Lynch Final Exam TAMU

Solar Water pumps in India

Did not take fact that women used that time as a social event, also eliminated jobs for young boys who delivered water to farm owners due to idea that they can irrigate own crops

-Women came together and broke the well

Curare

traditionally used as poison, relaxes and paralyzes, now used for abdominal surgery before used to shoot monkeys out of trees

-drug pulled from the lilian plant in the Amazon forest. Used as a blowgun poison. It paralyzes people. Blocks the neurotransmitters to the skeletal system. A person becomes paralyzed entirely but doesn't bother breather of heart functions. For taking monkeys out of trees. Sometimes used in warfare. Good for abdominal surgery in modern medicine. Surgery is dangerous because of involuntary bodily functions. Curare negates the danger of involuntary bodily functions

Cocolitzli

the Aztec word for small-pox (thought it was caused by a demon)-killed 90% of the population

Oxytoxic Plants

Speeds up child birth (parturition) and stimulates uterine contractions

Zoonose

Diseases spread from animals to humans. Especially in China pigs pick up diseases from duck/geese feces

Sli Poda

-elephantiasis, "Sli Poda" (Indian for big foot)

Agent

(organism causing the disease) Nematode (worm) in Filariasis

Vector

the culex mosquito causes the spread of Filariasis

Coevolution

process by which two species evolve in response to changes in each other

Prevalence Rate

the total number of cases of a particular disease in a given population at a given time (eg. 79/100,000)

Ishi

-Yahi: indian tribe living in the mountains of California

-Ishi was interviewed; last of the Yahi, came out of hiding in 1911 after 40 yrs.

-Yahi began hiding in 1840's due to gold mining

-Ishi was labeled as the wildman and was blown up on news/photographed often

Incidence Rate

the number of new cases in a given population each year

Dawes Act

ACT in 1887, dismantled American Indian tribes, set up individuals as family heads with 160 acres, tried to make rugged individualists out of the Indians, attempt to assimilate the Indian population into that of the American

World Systems theory

developed by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein, is an approach to world history and social change that suggests there is a world economic system in which some countries benefit while others are exploited.

Coprolite

fossilized human fecal matter; can reveal diet, diseases, and habits through analysis

koryak shamen

WETRIPPYMAYNE.

Would cure people with psychedelic mushrooms (Amanita Muscaria) and drink the urine of his patients to try and see the mental problems the patient was having

Susto

Soul Loss/sudden fright causing soul to escape

Culture bound syndrome of Ixtepejanos, Susto describes an illness that does not

correspond to anything known in our (i.e.

Western) biomedicine

disease patterning

disease is never random, it's always patterned

Four disease patterning categories

1. Environmental )eg filariasis in India)

2. Demographic (population factors)

3. Idiosyncratic (risks which are particular to the individual)

4. Cultural (health risks directly related to normative cultural behavior)

Environmental disease patterning

-Filariasis in India - Culex mosquitoes breeding in India's waterholes which often fill during monsoons providing perfect breeding ground for Culex Mosquitoes

-Malaria

-a disease caused by the conditions of surroundings such as toxins or particles in the air, water or soil. Many forms or cancer have a link to this

Demographic disease patterning

population factors, how many people, how densely populated

-Ex: When the probability of transmission of disease is high, more virulent strains will be selected for. When the probability of transmission is low, less virulent strains will be selected

Idiosyncratic disease patterning

risks which are particular to the individual, can be behavioral or genetic

Cultural disease patterning

health risks which directly relate to normative cultural behavior

-Ex: Beri Beri in Thailand (fish sauce on rice kills thiamin)

-Prostate cancer in U.S. (Too much red meat in diet)

-Heart disease in Japan (diet)

Demographics and infectious disease

Population factors

-How many people?

-How densely populated?

ex: small pox was far more deadly for the Aztecs than the Native Americans. (strains weren't as virulent because tribes were more spread out)

origins of malaria

-Anopheles Mosquitoes

-o Confined to a tropic area because mosquito can only survive in that area, cold temp would kill their eggs

-Frank Livingstone- (phy anthro) first identified the relationship between sickle cell anemia and malaria.

Penny capitalism

desperate supply and selective demand

-Ex: Guatemalan peasants~$2-$3.

Pirambu and slum economy, women make intricate garments which are not highly valued and continue to oversaturate market with goods therefore driving down price/also undercutting does no benefit

-Minimum salaries

-selling of wares

-international companies and cheap labor

Scrimshaw's vicious cycle

Leading cause of infant childhood mortality

1. Malnutrition

2. Intestinal Parasites

3. Diarrhea

4. Weakening of the Immune System

5. Infectious Diseases

Outcomes of contact with indigenous peoples

1. Cultural Extinction ie few Natives left

2. Assimilation

3. Creation of Subordinate Status, treated as second class citizens

Health and the adoption of agriculture

Filariasis

-elephantiasis, "Sli Poda" (Indian for big foot)

-120 million cases worldwide (60 million in India)

-Host: (organism infected) humans

-Agent: (organism causing the disease) Nematode (worm)

-Vector: the culex mosquito

-Sanitation comes into play

-belief that it is caused by divine punishment, social stigma

-no recognition by natives of a connection between the first and last stages of the disease

- very painful treatment, usually six weeks; can be reversed in stages 1 & 2

- education is the key to prevention, high illiteracy rates

Apache Free Housing

-houses built on grid for Apache indians

-matrilineal society, ignored government assignments

-door must face east, Apache tailored homes to personal preferences also lacked hearths which natives attempted to implement resulting in toppling of many houses. sued by government for housing damages

Switch to agriculture in Kenya

forced agriculture in North, compared to southern tribe; (~80,000 people relocated), forced into debt

-no one knew how to raise crops, had to pay government back for developing land; a lot of disease in famine camps. Resulted in people needing governmental aid therefore driving the government further into debt due to not collecting from failed crops and having to support famine camps

Cocaine in Boliva

-facts, figures, case studies of villages

-cocoa leafs used as a tonic for high altitude; energy boost similar to a cup of coffee

-cocaine accounted for ~70% of Bolivia's GDP; resulted in food shortage due to replacing crops with coca plants

-young men are drawn in mass to work with cocaine, only jobs able to "pay the bills," young women also became prostitutes to cocaine production compounds in order to support themselves

-80% of the production occurs during the pasting process; results in sores and skin lesions on feet.

-over $1 trillion spent on the war on drugs since the 60's

-o Cocaine at this time was the #1 cash crop

o All food had to be imported - food was expensive

o Cocaine production was the only way people had money to provide for their families.

o 3-500 kg for 1 kg of paste for cocaine

o drug lords gave workers free cocaine sometimes so they could work longer and faster

o most of the profit made from outside of Bolivia. 1 g of cocaine in Bolivia is $5 vs around $100 outside of the country

Pirambu development programs

• Airton Barreto, Lawyer, for the Pirambu Center for Human Rights

o Defends people for free because the people are discriminated against and don't have access to defense people

o Sued police and put a lot of pressure on the sergent, who threatened to kill Airton and blow up the center.

o Federal police had investigation on the guy and he was

Vicos Project (Allen Holmberg)

-works with Peruvian hacienda workers, native-american sharecroppers

-Holmberg rented land and began educating the hacienda workers, provided healthcare, education, and better wages

-"patrons" became upset and problems arose

-Peruvians acted as a catalyst for change

-o In Peru, Allen Holmberg was professor at Cornell

o Hacienda workers in Vicos area in Peru

o Almost all workers of native American descent

o Had a sharecrop system, most profits were to owner of hacienda

o Paid in script, could only spent it at hacienda store so the owner controlled everything and received all money

o Holmberg set up clinic and school area and trained people on their rights as citizens and workers

o Started operating the hacienda as cooperative

o Original hacienda began expanding because they became so profitable and other owners did not like it because their workers started striking for better wages and living conditions

KEEP (Cathie Jordan's Program)

-education efforts for native Hawaiian children

-Hawaiian children have significant roles in the house, where at school, they believe they have no responsibilities

-Jordan created curriculum to better fit native Hawaiian culture

-o Kamaya elementary education program

o Native Haiwan descent

o Tend to be underachievers in school

o Jordan found that in the household, children participate in a lot of chores for the family, work is done very willingly, pride to help out the family

o In the house the parents tell them the job they want done and leave them to do the job without specific instructions

o In the classroom the kids have no responsibility for any of the organization of the work or rules

o Kids view this as a game instead of work to think about

o Jordan says to minimize verbal directions, withdraw supervision when possible, allow students take responsibility in tasks

Berhorst Foundation

-physician visited Guatemala in the 70s; set up clinic in Guatemala

-gave women loans

o Holistic approach

o Carol Behrehorst - physician with masters in Anth, sold practice in Kansas and moved to Guatemala

o Opened a free clinic there

o He would treat people, especially children, and they would come back a couple months later with the same condition so they weren't getting any better

o Wrote to universities to get grad students to help and got grants from the US gov to expand

o Build wells for clean water to help with intestinal parasites

o Used to store grain in wooden bins so rats and bugs could get in and eat them, loosing 20-25% of food because of this. Rats are a big cause for intestinal parasites.

o Bought steel mesh in place of wooden bins to fix problems

o Transportation problems - started a local paramedics program, paid volunteers from villages to take 3 month course related to medical problems that the villagers have

o Set up education programs that targeted women as primary keepers of the household

o Set up a woman's cooperative for selling textiles

o Had his foundation cosign loans for people

AIDS & IV drug use

-research required insider trust

-high percentage of IV drug users use unsanitary needles

-some of the most violent strains of AIDS today are the result of shared IV drugs

Anthropology and Business

-Cultural broker

-Program evaluation: ethnography of the workplace, attitude.

Thrifty Genes

Selected during our evolutionary past to predispose carries toward more efficient extraction and retention of (then) scarce, yet essential nutrients (fats, carbs, protein, salt); implications for chronic disease; I.e. increase heart diseases current times

Medical anthropology

the comparative and holistic study of culture's impact on health and health-seeking behavior

Applied anthropology

the use of anthropology to solve practical problems

Enamel Hypoplasis

episodes of nutritional deficiency related to teeth. Lack of vitamin D causing strations in teeth along with pitting

Native American Church & Peyote (Omer Stewart)

-peyote is a hallucinogen associated with the church

-Stewart argued in court that it should be protected, in a ritual sense

-o Argued in front of the US Supreme Court

o Peyote is used to hallucinate in rituals

o Peyote is a very illegal substance, Native Americans were jailed because of it

o Stewart argued that the peyote use should fall under the Native American Religious Freedom Act, found in favor of the Native American Church that peyote is permissible in rituals

The Hmong: Struggle & Perserverence

-tribal people traditionally in isolated mountain villages (China, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam)

-"Hmong"-free people

Haiti: A nation in turmoil

-Republic of Haiti occupies the western third of Hispaniola

-Native Haitians are the Taino; Haiti in Taino means "highland"

-Columbus makes contact in 1492, leaves 39 to begin looking for riches

-Hunger, disease, and suicide ravaged Taino, resulting in only 500 left by 1540 of the original 400,000

-30,000 Africans brought to Hispaniola annually by French

-Extreme harsh slave conditions; slave population replaced about every 20 yrs.

-1833-1940~22 different dictators

-Francois Duvalier establishes a military dictatorship

-2009-annual income of $450 per person annually with life expectancy of 53 yrs. 50% illiterate

-Economic hits: corrupt government, tourism/diseases, AIDS

-2010-220,000 died in the earthquake; 1.5 million moved into tent cities

-Reforestation and reboot to agriculture needed

The Nuer: Cattle & Kinship in Sudan

-located in South Sudan (~1 million)

-Nuer refer to themselves as Naath (the people)

-live in open savannas and swamps along the Nile

-economy is a mix of pastoralism, horticulture, & fishing

-Cattle is the focus of the Nuer life, it determines marriages, spirit communication, milk production

-Leopard-skin chief- used as a mediator; settles battles and wars

-Cow's poop used for houses, poop ashes used as a toothpaste, urine used for sanitation purposes

-Kinship-based society; patrilineal

The Tiwi: Tradition in Australia

-occupy the Melville & Bathurst islands (north coast of Australia)

-traditionally hunters and gatherers; polygamy; kinship based social system; "Tiwi" means people

-Tiwi belong to their mother's matrilineal descent group, which they call their "skin"

-Pukamani-anything forbidden

-Kulama-yam ceremony part of the initiation into Tiwi adulthood (yams symbolize reproduction and health)

-unfortunate occurrences occur due to poor behavior, rarely blamed on a spirit

Yanomami

-Believed ancestors shot the moon and the moon blood created man

-women came from wabu fruit

-26,000 Yanomami people spread across Brazil and Venezuela

-Horticulturalists that lived in the tropical rain forests

-tribal society

-honey is a prized find when scavenging for food

-80% of food grown in the village gardens

-plantain is the most important crop

-almost every person older than 10 is addicted to tobacco

-everyone had a bowl cut hairstyle with circle shaved bald on top center of head

-believed in 4 layer universe

-first layer was nothing, 2nd was the sky, 3rd is the earth, 4th is trapped souls of people who were part man/animal/spirit

-Have high honor for the jaguar (but believed that culture was better than nature)

-believed the soul was a sophisticated organ

-all illness was caused by a "hekura" spirit

-bodies are cremated after death

-egalitarian society (no ranked hierarchy)

-women are subject to violence from their husbands and boys are taught to hit women from a very early age

Agrisilviculture

Combining smart agriculture and sustainability to protect the environment

Navajo Paramedic Program (James Justice)

-free courses to paramedic techniques

-problems lied within the courses and course-work

-Justice emphasized team-work, resulting in higher success rates

Program evaluation

ethnography of the workplace and attitudes

Ethnomedicine

Information that pertains to theories of disease and forms of therapy specific to a given culture.

Tomali

-Aztec Disease Theory

-Headaches caused by excess blood in the head -> puts pressure on the Tomali (spirit)

-Drain blood from head

Trepanation

-prehistoric brain surgery

-Piece of skull carved out of head

-People usually live for years after

-To let out bad spirits

-Started to become popular again in late 1700's

-Developed instruments to make it easier

-To remove pressure from the brain

Macpalxochitl

-"hand flower tree"

-Aztec Medicine

-Brew tea from leaves of hand-flower tree, strengthen blood strengthen heart and combat fatigue

-Good for the elderly

-Lowers blood pressure

AIDS

o AIDS originated in Africa

o 1991 - already spread in most countries

o Hadn't developed any good treatments yet

o Highest prevalence rates in U.S. > Brazil > Japan

o Highest incidence rates in Brazil > U.S. > Japan

o Took a long time for people to get AIDS from completely from contracting HIV

o Time interval longer in U.S., but IV drug users caused pockets where there were short intervals because of the sharing of needles

Goals of modernization

-education

o literacy

o national language - so everyone can mutually communicate

o used to change unwanted social practices

o bride price

o polygamy

-technology transfer

o modern technology is seen as superior and needed to increase productivity

o should be used all the time

-participation in cash economy

o cheap labor

o incentives to countries to build infrastructure

o desperate for foreign dollars - overlook low wages or environmental controls

o everybody wins

o jobs, money —> buying goods —> expands health for everyone, taxes

Guarani Indians of Itanarami

-Village in eastern Paraguay (heavily forested)

• deforestation at rapid rate

• land and soil not suitable for mono-cropping/raising livestock

Guarani traditional subsistence (horticulture)

crop rotation

slash & burn

small clearings

very complex

plants that would bring in insects that would ward off other animals that would eat or destroy plants

time to move village - no where to move

most followed farmers and ranchers further into the forest to work

development enters —> destroys land, way of life

within 5 years, the land was totally restricted

deforestation, torrential rainfall, floods lands, soil packed down (brick in dry season, mud in wet)

Pastoralism in Kenya

-forced agriculture in North, compared to southern tribe.

-o Ngisonyoka Turkana Pastoralists: facts, figures and techniques they utilize. Much better, more appropriate, land use.

o Forced to change pastoral ways to agriculture.

o Had to sell herds to buy stuff for agriculture.

o Argument - Pastoralism was a poor use of land. Deplete soil from over grazing.

o 1979 - severe drought - vast majority of relocated people were starving due to crop failure. Most defaulted on their loans too.

o Land ended up being reclaimed by foreign investors for pennies on the dollar

o Pastoralists became refugees in their own country.

Paleopathology

-"the study of disease in prehistoric populations."

-• Skeletal indicators

• Where the bodies are preserved

• Can look at skeletal markers for diseases or trauma

Cultural Patterns:

• Warfare

• Degenerative knee disease in Eskimos

o Studies done in 1950's and 60's

o Cartilage almost entirely worn away

o Compared to other ethnic populations

o More common in men than women

o Standing up on dog sleds, rides are very jarring over time, over time it wears down the cartilage

• Lack of Cancer: in pre-industrial societies.

o Cancer has been around but not in skeletal remains

o More prevalent today

Paleodemography

-population factors, settlement changes, age and sex ratios, life expectancy, etc.

Example: shift to agriculture = health down. Increases in both infectious disease and episodes of nutritional stress.

Eg. Dickson Mound: site in Illinois - occupied for several hundred years - switch in agriculture

Porotic Hyperstosis

-caused by iron deficiency and anemia, over reliance on corn, cranial flap bones will honeycomb inside, hollow, brittle, rough to the touch.

Discourse Analysis

o Exploring the language used between the healthcare provider and the patient

o What does it tell us about the relationship between the two? Dominate and subordinate

o How much time does the doctor spend with the patient

o How open to dialogue with the patient are doctors open to?

o Comparison between how cancer patients are treated in the US vs Europe

o In US drs are very open about cancer diagnoses and tend to downplay the effectiveness of treatments. Also tend to give an estimate of time left to live and usually underestimate the time.

o In Europe Drs try not to use language like cancer, malignant or tumor. Will hide the severity of diagnoses. Tend to overestimate recovery and rarely ever tell you how much time you have to live.

o Correlation that having a strong attitude greatly improves chances of remission for various types of cancers.

o Fear of litigation and liability in US to lie about treatments and its success.

o In Europe they have socialized medicine so you cant sue the government. No financial liability for dr.

Cultural studies in medical anthropology

3 types

1. Studies of ethnomedicine, including ethnobotany, often tied to belief systems, eg. Macpalxoxitl, Fritz, etc

2. Studies of personality and mental health in diverse cultural settings, eg susto and social role performance.

3. Applied studies in international public health and planned community change programs

Ethnobotany

-modern drugs and indigenous use

-curare

Infectious Disease

using evolutionary models at the population level to mold pathogens to a more benign state of co-existence.

Wide-spectrum antibacterials

• Re-thinking cost-benefit analyses. Eg. "Nothing but Nets." (founded by basketball player, organization's sole purpose is to make nets and give them to people who need them)- widespread use of mosquito nets, a lot of people would say it is not cost benefiting.

Applied Anthropology

-the use of anthropology to solve practical problems.

• Utilizes a "ground-up" or grass roots perspective/approach

Problems occur with a

Development Anthropology

- part of the broad, multi-disciplinary field of International Development, which tries to improve human welfare, particularly in underdeveloped and developing countries. Emphasizes Sustainability as a goal/requirement.

-One Major Area: Health Care & Nutrition: Often need to change behavior, behavior often creates the problem.

Virulence

is a pathogen or microbe's ability to infect or damage a host

Applied Ethnography

• Darrell Posey and Amazonian Indian Groups

o Agrislaculture - Being able to utilize the forest for cash crops

Anthropology and Program Evaluation

• James Justice and the Navahoe Paramedic Program

o U.S. government knew that Navahoe are suspicious of outsiders, though they would respond better to people in their community

o Would provide free tuition to Navahoe young people to become paramedics in their community program failed because of high failure rate and low motivation

o James Justice found that the problem was because of the curriculum, mainstream US culture, competition, textbook and academic learning, time schedules were very strict, most people had full time jobs

o Justice made new curriculum based on self paced learning, hand on learning, teamwork rather than competition

o New curriculum worked better with Navahoe culture

Anthropology in Education

-• Minorities tend to score lower on all standardized texts, lose interest in standard curriculum, don't see themselves in the materials

• Ortiz de Montellano and Mesoamerican inclusive curriculum

o Devised curriculum for school children along New Mexican and Arizona border, incorporated history from regions of Mexican and Central America, where the kids were from

o Implemented Mayan calendar in Math and astronomy

-Project KEEP

Anthropologists as Advocates

-• Airton Barreto, Lawyer, for the Pirambu Center for Human Rights

-• Darell Posey, spent time in jail in defense of native peoples

-• Omer Stewart, Native American Church and Peyote

-• John Hostetler & the Amish

John Hostetler and the Amish

o Testified before the Supreme Court

o Amish did not want to send their kids to public high schools, Hostetler made the argument that to force the kids to go to public high schools would subject them to psychological problems and alienation. Could threaten their existence as a culture.

o Court exempted them from attending public high schools

o Opened the door for home schooling

Tenncare

• Tennessee's form of Medicaid

• Evaluation of it to see if people were satisfied with it

• Results - large percentage were pretty happy about it but some still a lot of confusion with what it all covered. Doctors however were not happy and dropping out of the program because they weren't getting paid because tests were not covered and they weren't told about it until later leaving them out of money

Hector Qirko and TVA

• Tennessee River Valley - employ thousands of people

• Qirko spent years examining the workplace to keep making it better

Sexual Tourism

-o People who don't have anything else to sell, sell their bodies

• Generally not lifelong

• Some become slaves by choice

• Debt Bondage

o Sometimes passed to next generation

-o Little girl asked prof's wife for food, girl started crying, she was sold by her father to a slave broker when she was 10 years old for 1500 AI's, picked her up and waited until she was 12 to make sure she was a virgin, made her model on stage while men bidded on her and other girls/boys being rented.

o Rented for 6 months with 3 other girls to a secluded beach house, the man would invite all of his buddies there, all the girls were used for sex, they did all the domestic work for him and all of his guests, they were filmed and drugged.

o After 6 months she was given back to the slave broker, slave broker kept renting her out for 2 years then he let her free saying that her father's debt is paid back.

Infant feeding practices

o Most people in extreme poverty don't breast feed, takes a lot of time, have to be with your kid most of the time, hard to hold down a job, bottle feeding is preferred

• 300 million cases of acute malaria each year