Socrates and the fifth century b.c.

Cleisthenes

An Athenian statesman known as the "Father of Athenian Democracy," he implemented a series of political reforms that laid the foundation for democratic governance in Athens.

Greco-Persian Wars (490-479 BC)

A series of conflicts between the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire, resulting in the end of Persian expansion into Greece and significant victories for the Greeks at battles like Marathon and Salamis.

Herodotus

An ancient Greek historian known as the "Father of History," he is famous for his work "Histories," which chronicles the Greco-Persian Wars and provides a detailed account of various cultures and events.

battle of marathon

A significant battle in 490 BC during the Greco-Persian Wars, where the outnumbered Athenian army achieved a surprising victory over the Persians, boosting Greek morale and contributing to the rise of Athenian democracy.

Battle of Salamis

A naval battle fought in 480 BC during the Greco-Persian Wars, where the Greek fleet, using superior tactics and knowledge of local waters, decisively defeated the larger Persian navy, marking a turning point in the conflict.

Themistocles

A prominent Athenian general and politician who played a crucial role in the naval victory at the Battle of Salamis. He advocated for a strong Athenian navy and was essential in the defense against the Persians.

Darius

The king of Persia during the early Greco-Persian Wars, known for his leadership and attempts to subjugate Greece, including the expedition that led to the Battle of Marathon.

Xerxes

The king of Persia who led the second invasion of Greece, known for his role in the Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis during the Greco-Persian Wars.

Peloponnesian Wars (431-404 BC)

a major Greek conflict in which Athens and the Delian League fought against Sparta and the Peloponnesian League. Sparked by growing rivalry between the two powers, the war involved land and naval battles, political turmoil, and a devastating plague in Athens. It ended with Sparta’s victory, the collapse of Athenian power, and the end of Athens’ Golden Age.

Thucydides

a 5th-century BC Athenian historian and general best known for writing The History of the Peloponnesian War

Pericles

a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general during Athens’ Golden Age (5th century BC). He strengthened democracy, promoted arts and culture, and led major building projects such as the Parthenon. Pericles also guided Athens in the early years of the Peloponnesian War before dying in the plague of 429 BC.

Alcibiades

a 5th-century BC Athenian statesman, general, and controversial figure. Known for his charm, ambition, and shifting loyalties, he played a major role in the Peloponnesian War, at times supporting Athens, Sparta, and Persia. His actions greatly influenced the course of the war and Athenian politics.

Nicias

an Athenian general and politician during the Peloponnesian War. Known for his cautious and conservative approach, he opposed risky military ventures. He is most famous for commanding the disastrous Sicilian Expedition (415–413 BC), which ended in a major defeat for Athens.

Mytilene

a city on the island of Lesbos in ancient Greece. During the Peloponnesian War, it rebelled against Athenian rule in 428 BC, but the revolt was crushed. The Athenians debated whether to punish the city harshly, ultimately executing the revolt’s leaders but sparing most of the population.

Battle of Syracuse

a major fight during the Peloponnesian War in which Athens tried to conquer the city of Syracuse in Sicily (415–413 BC). The attempt failed, and the Athenian army and navy were almost completely destroyed.

Arginusae

a naval battle in the Peloponnesian War, fought in 406 BC near the Arginusae Islands off the coast of Asia Minor. In this battle, Athens defeated Sparta, even though the Athenians were using hastily built and manned ships. The victory was overshadowed because a storm prevented rescuing Athenian sailors from sinking ships, leading to a political crisis in Athens in which several generals were put on trial and executed.

Lysander

a Spartan naval commander and statesman during the Peloponnesian War. He rebuilt Sparta’s navy, formed alliances, and eventually defeated Athens in 404 BC by winning the Battle of Aegospotami. His leadership helped end the war and bring about Sparta’s victory.

Critias

an Athenian politician and student of Socrates who became one of the Thirty Tyrants, the oligarchic rulers installed in Athens after its defeat in the Peloponnesian War (404 BC). He was known for his harsh and oppressive rule, suppressing democracy, executing opponents, and confiscating property.

Charmides

an Athenian politician and a member of the Thirty Tyrants, the oligarchic rulers installed in Athens after its defeat in 404 BC. He was known for being harsh and strict in enforcing the regime’s oppressive policies.

Trial of Socrates

took place in 399 BC in Athens. Socrates was charged with corrupting the youth and impiety (not respecting the gods of the city). He defended himself in court but was found guilty and sentenced to death by drinking poison hemlock.

Meletus

an Athenian poet and politician who acted as the main accuser of Socrates in his trial in 399 BC. He charged Socrates with corrupting the youth and impiety, leading to Socrates’ conviction and death sentence.

Socratic Problem

the difficulty in knowing exactly what Socrates taught because he left no writings of his own. Our knowledge of him comes from different sources—mainly Plato, Xenophon, and Aristophanes—who often portray him differently, making it hard for historians to separate the real Socrates from literary or philosophical interpretations.

Socratic Dialogues

Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo, Gorgias, Republic

Euthyphro

a character in one of Plato’s dialogues. He is a young man who claims to have expert knowledge of piety and religion. In the dialogue, Socrates questions him about the nature of piety, leading to the famous discussion of whether something is pious because the gods love it or if the gods love it because it is pious.

Apology

a dialogue by Plato that recounts Socrates’ defense at his trial in 399 BC. In it, Socrates explains and defends his life of philosophy, argues against the charges of corrupting the youth and impiety, and accepts the court’s verdict with dignity. It is a key source for understanding his ideas and character.

Crito

a dialogue by Plato that depicts a conversation between Socrates and his friend Crito while Socrates is in prison, awaiting execution. In it, Crito urges Socrates to escape, but Socrates argues that it would be unjust to break the law, showing his commitment to justice and moral principle.

Phaedo

a dialogue by Plato that describes the last hours of Socrates’ life in prison before he drinks poison hemlock. In it, Socrates discusses the immortality of the soul and the afterlife, presenting philosophical arguments for why the soul survives death.

Gorgias

a dialogue by Plato in which Socrates debates the sophist Gorgias (and others) about rhetoric, justice, and the good life. Socrates argues that true power lies in living a just and virtuous life, not merely in persuading or gaining influence over others.

Republic

a philosophical dialogue by Plato in which Socrates and others discuss justice, the ideal state, and the nature of the soul. It explores topics like the philosopher-king, the division of society into classes, and the theory of forms, presenting Plato’s vision of a just and well-ordered society.

Athens

a city-state in ancient Greece, famous for its democracy, philosophy, art, and architecture. It was a major cultural and political center, home to thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Pericles, and played a key role in the Greco-Persian and Peloponnesian Wars.

Sparta

a city-state in ancient Greece known for its military strength, disciplined society, and oligarchic government. Unlike Athens, Sparta focused on warrior training and conquest, producing highly skilled soldiers and maintaining strict social order.

Polis

an ancient Greek city-state, the basic political and social unit of Greek life. Each polis had its own government, laws, and army, and served as a center for community, trade, and culture. Examples include Athens and Sparta.

Sophistry

the use of clever but misleading arguments to persuade or deceive. In ancient Greece, sophists were teachers who charged for instruction in rhetoric and argumentation, often focusing on winning debates rather than seeking truth.

Problem of the one and the many

a philosophical question in ancient Greek thought about how things can be both unified and diverse. It asks: if reality is made of many different things, what makes them one, and if it is one, how does diversity exist? Philosophers like Heraclitus, Parmenides, and Plato explored this problem in trying to understand the nature of reality.

Parthenon

a temple on the Acropolis in Athens, built in the 5th century BC to honor the goddess Athena, the city’s patron. It is famous for its classical Greek architecture, Doric columns, and sculptural decorations, symbolizing the power and culture of ancient Athens.

Prometheus Bound

an ancient Greek tragedy, traditionally attributed to Aeschylus. It tells the story of Prometheus, a Titan who is punished by Zeus for giving fire to humans, and explores themes of defiance, suffering, and justice. Humanism.

Phidias

a famous ancient Greek sculptor and architect of the 5th century BC. He is best known for creating the statue of Zeus at Olympia (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) and the sculptural decorations of the Parthenon in Athens.

Dualism

the philosophical view that reality consists of two fundamental and distinct kinds of substances or principles, often mind and body or good and evil. In philosophy, it is most famously associated with Plato and Descartes, who argued that the mind (or soul) is separate from the physical body.

Medea by Euripides

a tragedy by the ancient Greek playwright Euripides. It tells the story of Medea, a woman who takes revenge on her husband Jason after he betrays her by marrying another woman. The play explores themes of passion, revenge, betrayal, and the position of women in society.

Aeschylus

an ancient Greek playwright (c. 525–456 BC), often called the father of tragedy. He is known for expanding the number of actors in plays, creating dramatic dialogue, and writing famous tragedies such as The Persians, Seven Against Thebes, and Prometheus Bound.

Protagoras

an ancient Greek sophist and philosopher (c. 490–420 BC). He is famous for his claim that “Man is the measure of all things”, emphasizing relativism and human perception. He taught rhetoric and argued that truth and morality can vary depending on individual or cultural perspective.

Entasis

an architectural technique used in ancient Greek columns where the shaft is slightly curved outward (swollen) in the middle. This subtle curve creates the illusion of straightness and strength, correcting the optical illusion that perfectly straight columns appear concave.

Idealism

a philosophical view that reality is fundamentally mental, spiritual, or immaterial. It holds that ideas, consciousness, or the mind are more real than the physical world. Plato’s theory of Forms is a classic example of idealism, where perfect, unchanging ideas exist beyond the material world.