Comprehensive Anatomy and Physiology: Respiratory, Urinary, Skeletal, Nervous, and Endocrine Systems

Function of the respiratory system

To ensure that oxygen enters the body and carbon dioxide leaves

Cilia

Small hairs that beat

Mucus produced by cilia and epithelial cells

Thin mucus

Respiratory epithelium

Another name for the epithelial layer lining the respiratory tract

Function of mucus and cilia

The mucus traps particles and the cilia moves the mucus to the pharynx/throat to be swallowed

Organs of the upper respiratory tract

Nasal cavity, Pharynx/throat, Larynx

Organs of the lower respiratory tract

Trachea/windpipe, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Lungs, Alveoli

Function of the nasal cavity

It is the site of air intake and contains stiff nasal hairs and respiratory epithelium which filter the air

Connection of the nasal cavity

The 4 sinuses (air-filled cavities)

Function of tear/lacrimal glands

Create tears that drain into the nose

Function of auditory/eustachian tubes

Drain mucus from the middle ear and equalize air pressure on either side of the eardrum

Function of the pharynx

Connects the nasal cavity to the larynx and the oral cavity to the esophagus; conducts food and air (not at the same time)

Function of the larynx

Connects the pharynx to the trachea and is involved in sound production (contains the vocal cords and the glottis)

Sealing of the larynx and nasal passages when swallowing

Epiglottis and soft palate

Function of the trachea

Connects the larynx to the bronchi

Muscles in the wall of the trachea

Smooth muscle and C-shaped cartilage

Function of the bronchi

Lead to the alveoli; primary bronchi enter the lungs and split from there (secondary bronchi, tertiary, etc.)

Function of the alveoli

Site of gas exchange in the lungs

Surfactant

Substance secreted by the alveoli to prevent collapse

External respiration

Gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood capillaries in the lungs (air coming in and out of the body); oxygen leaves the alveoli to enter the blood and carbon dioxide leaves the blood to enter the alveoli

Internal respiration

Gas exchange between blood capillaries and body cells outside the alveoli (air going throughout the body); oxygen moves out of the blood and into the body cells and carbon dioxide moves out of the body cells and into the blood

Membrane enclosing the lungs

Pleurae

Muscles involved in breathing

Intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles

Steps of inhalation

Intercostal muscles contract, rib cage moves up and out, diaphragm contracts and flattens, lung volume increases, lung air pressure decreases, air moves into the lungs (towards lower pressure)

Steps of exhalation

Intercostal muscles relax, rib cage moves down and in, diaphragm relaxes and domes up, lung volume decreases, lung air pressure increases, air moves out of the lungs (towards lower pressure)

Components of the urinary system

2 kidneys, 2 ureters, 1 bladder, 1 urethra

Main purpose of the urinary system

To eliminate the waste products of metabolism from the body by forming and excreting urine

Main waste products found in urine

Urea, Uric acid, Excess water, Mineral ions, Creatine

Steps to make urine

Glomerular filtration, Tubular reabsorption, Tubular secretion

Functions of the kidneys

Maintain proper salt-water balance, help to maintain the proper blood pH, maintain proper balance of mineral ions, perform a step in vitamin D synthesis

Tubular secretion

The process by which substances are transferred from the blood into the tubular fluid of the nephron.

Transitional epithelium

A type of tissue located within the walls of the bladder.

Detrusor smooth muscle

A muscle located within the walls of the bladder that is controlled involuntarily.

Functions of the skeletal system

Shape and support, protection of organs, movement of the body (works with the muscular system).

Axial skeleton

Includes the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and ribs.

Appendicular skeleton

Includes the pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, bones of the upper limb, and bones of the lower limb.

Bones in the upper limb

Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges.

Bones in the lower limb

Femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges.

Types of joints

Fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints, synovial joints.

Endocrine system

Produces chemical signals that regulate other organs and works with the nervous system to control the functions of other organs.

Hormone

Chemical messengers that are released by glands in organs of the endocrine system and cause a response in the cell with a matching hormone receptor.

Organs of the endocrine system

Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid, pancreas, gonads.

Hypothalamus

The control center of the endocrine system that releases hormones that control the activity of the pituitary gland.

Pituitary gland

Produces hormones that are involved in a variety of body processes.

Thyroid

Controls the way cells use energy.

Hyperthyroidism

Overactive thyroid gland.

Hypothyroidism

Under-active thyroid gland.

Pancreas

Regulates blood sugar by releasing insulin and glucagon.

Insulin

Produced due to high blood sugar and lowers it.

Glucagon

Produced due to low blood sugar and provides sugar for the body.

Type I diabetes

The pancreas does not produce enough insulin and is an autoimmune disease.

Type II diabetes

Cells become resistant to insulin OR the pancreas does not produce enough of it, caused by obesity and inactivity.

Types of gonads

Ovaries: produces estrogen and progesterone.

Testes

produces testosterone

Osteocytes

regulate bone remodeling; formed by osteoblasts that become trapped in their own hardening matrix

Epiphysis

expanded region at the ends of the bone; contains red bone marrow

Osteoblasts

make bone tissue

Long bone

made up of diaphysis and epiphysis

Cartilage

reduces friction and absorbs shock

Osteoarthritis

joint disease that results from breakdown of joint cartilage and bone

Synovial joints

ligaments connect bone to bone; freely moveable; 6 different types

Osteoporosis

age-related condition in which bones lose mass, weaken, and break more easily

Osteoclasts

break down bone and absorb bone tissue

Spongy bone

formed from bony plates called trabeculae separated by unequal spaces

Compact bone

composed of tubular units called osteons; makes up 80% of bone mass

Cartilaginous joints

bones are joined by cartilage: slightly moveable

Fibrous joints

bones are joined by dense connective tissue; immovable

Diaphysis

shaft; contains yellow bone marrow

Creatine

a waste product produced by muscle cells

Pleurae

double membrane that encloses the lung

Larynx

contains the vocal cords and glottis; passageway between pharynx and trachea

Bronchioles

lead to air pockets called alveoli

Nasal cavity

filters air through nasal hairs and mucus at the epithelial surface

Eustachian tubes

drain the mucus from the middle ear and equalizes the pressure between the atmosphere and the middle ear; also called auditory tubes

Trachea

connects the larynx to the bronchi; 'windpipe'; contains C-shaped cartilage to prevent collapse during pressure changes

Carbon dioxide

a waste product of cellular respiration

Bladder

collects and stores urine

Uric acid

waste product of nucleic acid breakdown

Maximum inhalation

when the volume of the lungs has been increased by the muscles of the back, neck, and chest

Maximum exhalation

contraction of internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles force air out of the lungs more forcefully like when exercising

Pharynx

conducts food and air (not at the same time); connects the nasal cavity to the larynx and the oral cavity to the esophagus

Mucus

traps particles

Diaphragm

muscle that separates thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity

Alveoli

region of gas exchange in the lungs; surrounded by capillaries; secrete surfactant to prevent collapse

Urea

a waste product of protein break-down

Chemical control

pH receptors send signals to the brain to speed up breathing rate when blood pH drops

Nervous control

breathing rate is controlled by the respiratory control center in the brain

Odor receptors

detect smell

Glomerular filtration

water and solutes are filtered out of the glomerulus

Bronchi

divisions of the trachea; also have a C-shaped cartilage; has primary, secondary, and tertiary bronchi

Sinuses

4 air-filled interconnected cavities that produce and circulate mucus