D664 - Learners and Learning Science

Covers sections 1 and 2 of WGU's D664: Learners and Learning Science

Brain stem

Controls basic life functions like breathing and heart rate. Keeps students alive, alert, and functioning. Memory trick for location: like a stem connecting the ground to a flower

Cerebellum

Coordinates movement, balance, and motor control. Important for handwriting, sports, focus, and routines. Memory trick for location: bell-um/bottom

Limbic system

Controls emotion, motivation, and memory (includes amygdala and hippocampus). Regulates emotional learning and memory. Memory trick for location: limbo/middle

Cerebrum

Largest brain area; handles thinking, problem solving, and perception. All high-level thinking happens here. Memory trick for location: the thinking cap/top

Prefrontal cortex

Located at the front of the cerebrum; manages executive functions like planning, decision making, and impulse control. Crucial for learning, attention, and behavior. Memory trick for location: frontal/front

Hippocampus

Part of the limbic system; stores and processes memory. Helps move information into long-term memory.

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system; processes emotions, especially fear and stress. Affects emotional response to learning.

Executive function

Located mainly in the prefrontal cortex; includes attention control, working memory, planning and goal setting, emotional regulation, and impulse control. Students with weak executive function may struggle with focus, organization, and managing emotions.

Myelination

Insulation that helps brain signals move faster; helps the brain grow

Pruning

Eliminates unused neural connections to boost efficiency; helps the brain grow

Brain concepts for educators

1. The brain learns best when students feel safe

2. Emotion affects cognition; social-emotional needs must be addressed

3. Memory needs support; use repetition, practice, and emotional connection

4. Executive functions must be taught like any other skill

Neuroscience

Study of the brain and nervous systems

Cognition

Mental processes like memory, reasoning, perception, and decision making

Neurons

Brain cells forming communication networks

Neurodevelopment

Brain growth stages, crucial for learning

Encoding → storage → retrieval

Stages of memory formation/learning knowledge

Metacognition

Awareness and control over one’s thinking and learning

Feedback

Guides learners in refining strategies

Research-backed study strategies

Retrieval practice, spacing, interleaving

Desirable difficulty

Learning through moderate challenge

Feedback-driven metacognition

Reflecting and adjusting based on assessment feedback; an effective study strategy

Research-based/evidence-based best practices

Instructional strategies proven effective via empirical investigation

Cognitive executive function

Mental skills for planning, focusing, and self-control

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s lifelong adaptability

Neurodiversity

Recognition and celebration of diverse learning profiles

Retrieval practice

An effective study strategy using quizzes or flashcards to recall info

Spacing

Spread learning over time for better retention; an effective study strategy

Interleaving

An effective study strategy which mixes related topics to deepen understanding

Desirable difficulty

Embrace manageable challenges to build cognitive resilience; an effective study strategy

Neurodevelopment timeline

Prenatal - brain cell formation begins

Newborn - rapid growth phase

Early childhood - myelination and pruning begin

Adolescence - prefrontal cortex matures

Adulthood - development slows

Integration: neuroscience and instruction

Executive function: enables learners to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning

Metacognition: empowers students to self-check and self-correct

Brain-based strategies: using spacing, retrieval, feedback, and interleaving for optimal learning outcomes

Neurodiversity awareness: using differentiated instruction to honor varying brains

Evidence-based implementation: grounding teaching in proven learning methods

Key principle of learning science: motivation

Students are more motivated to learn when they are interested, have a sense of autonomy, and understand the purpose behind what they are learning. This boosts intrinsic motivation which leads to a deeper processing and persistence.

Mnemonic: interest + purpose = motivation

Key principle of learning science: thinking deeply

Thinking deeply encourages students to pay attention, build memories, and make meaning out of new material; helps students connect new into to prior knowledge.

Key principle of learning science: retrieval practice

Retrieval practice strengthens memory and helps students flexibly apply what they’ve learned. Activities like self-quizzing and recall games help lock in learning.

Key principle of learning science: spacing and interleaving

Spacing out learning and interleaving content strengthens long-term learning and helps students make connections between ideas; helps with flexibility and strategy use.

Key principle of learning science: challenge and high expectations

Communicating high expectations and keeping learners at the edge of mastery helps them reach their potential. Challenges help students push past their current abilities, engage the brain deeply, and lay the foundation for strong learning. Aim for productive struggle.

Key principle of learning science: safety

Safety and connection matter. Students learn best when they feel safe, supported, and connected to others. Emotional security = better focus and engagement.

Key principle of learning science: collaboration & social interaction

Engaging the social brain encourages active processing and supports deeper learning. True collaboration sparks idea sharing.

Key principle of learning science: environment

Elements like space, temperature, and lighting affect how well students can focus and engage. Natural light and nature views have been shown to increase performance.

Key principle of learning science: physical well-being

Sleep, nutrition, and exercise are critical to cognitive performance. Aerobic activities boost brain plasticity and memory.

Key principle of learning science: learning is a process

Learning involves effort, mistakes, reflection, and refining strategies over time. Students must see failure as feedback.

Learning principles are grounded in these three key cognitive processes

Encoding, storage, and retrieval. All are managed by executive function.

Encoding

Processing information input

Storage

Retaining information over time

Retrieval

Accessing information from memory

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Framework that classifies cognitive learning objectives into levels of increasing complexity. Helps educators design content that promotes higher-level thinking.

Bloom’s Taxonomy: remember

First level. Action words are list, recall, identify, define.

Bloom’s Taxonomy: understand

Second level. Action words are explain, summarize, define.

Bloom’s Taxonomy: apply

Third level. Action words are use, solve, demonstrate.

Bloom’s Taxonomy: analyze

Fourth level. Action words are compare, contrast, categorize.

Bloom’s Taxonomy: evaluate

Fifth level. Action words are compare, contrast, categorize.

Bloom’s Taxonomy: create

Sixth level. Action words are design, compose, invent.

Bloom’s Taxonomy mnemonic

R.U.A.A.E.C

Remember - recall facts and basic concepts

Understand - explain in your own words

Apply - use information in new but similar situations

Analyze - break down concepts and see how parts relate

Evaluate - make judgments based on evidence and criteria

Create - use prior knowledge to produce original work

Behaviorism

Focused on observable behavior, reinforcement, repetition, and feedback. Repetitive practice and praise for correct answers are examples in practice. ie positive reinforcement with stickers or math flashcards to reinforce automatic recall.

Learning is a change in behavior caused by external stimuli and reinforcement.

Aligned with retrieval practice and reinforcement.

Cognitivism

Focused on mental processes, memory, and retrieval. Aligned with strategies like scaffolding, chinking, retrieval practice, and metacognition. Examples are teaching students how to think about their thinking, using graphic organizers to help students structure and organize new knowledge, and spacing content and revisiting it over time to aid long-term memory.

Constructivism

Focused on making meaning through experience. Learners actively construct their own understanding based on experience and prior knowledge; learning happens when students build meaning vs. just receiving facts. Manipulatives, hands-on exploration, collaborative inquiry, and real world relevance are examples in practice.

Humanism

Learning is student-centered and focused on emotions, motivation, and personal growth. Emotional safety, relationships, and motivation are key to learning. Students must feel safe, valued, and connected to engage. Teachers focus on the whole child, not just academics. Building strong student-teacher relationships, creating a classroom environment that supports social-emotional learning, and encouraging goal setting, reflection, and growth mindset are examples in practice.

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Focuses on how children think and learn at different stages of development. His theory is sequential; children move through these stages in order.

Piaget’s Sensorimotor stage

0-2 years. Learning happens through senses and motor actions; children develop object permanence.

Piaget’s Preoperational stage

2-7 years. Children think symbolically, are egocentric, and struggle with logic.

Piaget’s Concrete Operational stage

7-11 years. Children think logically about concrete events, understand conservation, and can classify and organize objects.

Piaget’s Formal Operational stage

12+ years. Children think abstractly, can reason hypothetically; solve complex problems; think about morality, politics, and justice.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory

Explains how people develop socially and emotionally through stages, each with a specific conflict to resolve. Successful resolution leads to a stronger sense of self.

Erikson’s Trust vs. Mistrust stage

0-18 months.

Conflict: can I trust others?

Positive outcome: secure attachment, trust in caregivers

Risk if unresolved: fear, suspicious, insecurity

Erikson’s Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt stage

18 mos - 3 years

Conflict: Can I do things myself?

Positive outcome: independence, confidence

Risk if unresolved: doubt in own abilities

Erikson’s Initiative vs. Guilt stage

3-6 years

Conflict: is it okay for me to try?

Positive outcome: purpose, taking initiative

Risk if unresolved: guilt, inhibition

Erikson’s Industry vs. Inferiority stage

6-12 years

Conflict: can I succeed at tasks?

Positive outcome: competence, pride in accomplishments

Risk if unresolved: feelings of failure and inferiority

Erikson’s Identity vs. Role Confusion stage

12-19 years

Conflict: who am I?

Positive outcome: strong sense of self and value

Risk if unresolved: identity crisis, confusion

Development Theories: application to teaching

Piaget explains how kids think at each stage

Erikson explains what they’re emotionally working through

0-2: bonding, sensory play, safety

2-3: encourage independence with safe limits

3-6: support exploration and creativity, avoid overcorrecting

6-11: use tasks, praise effort, foster competence

12-18: encourage self-reflection, provide choices, explore identity

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Vygotsky said that social interaction and language are key to learning. Learning happens with others; use group work, modeling, and teacher guidance to help students grow.

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development

The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help.

Vygotsky’s Scaffolding

Temporary support (like hints, models, and prompts), usually from a teacher or peer that helps students reach the next level.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Motivation theory showing that basic needs must be met before learning can happen. If a child is hungry, scared, or lonely, they can’t focus on academics. Creating a safe, respectful classroom that supports emotional well-being helps students reach their full potential.