research methods exam #2 - chapters 4-6

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quasi experiment

designs in which random assignment cannot be used

true experiment

designs in which the researcher manipulates all of the IVs

what are the different methods for measuring variables?

self report, observational, physiological

self report

directly asks a particip. how they feel

observational

just observing, not manipulating any variables

physiological

records biological info from living thing??

random error

caused by the instrument being used — cannot really be avoided: different measuring tape sizes/variations

systematic error

faulty measuring scale that consistently reads differently; your measurients of the same thing will vary in predictable ways

how do you minimize error?

• standardize the experimental situation

• reduce observer bias

• avoid measurement bias

what is reliability?

the stability or consistency of a measure

why is reliability important?

measures the consistency of results and how reliable they are

what is validity?

the degree to which a tool measures what it claims to measure

why is validity important?

it ensures that research, assessments, and data are accurate and reliable:

what does self report mean?

for a participant to report their own thinking/views etc.

why do we use a self-report measure so often?

convenient and cost effective

what biases can affect self-report data?

• social desirability:

  • giving an answer that makes them look good

• demand characteristics: a cue that makes participants potentially aware of what the researcher expects

• retrospective bias: when participants view or interpret past events in an inaccurate way

why is it true that a measure cannot be valid if it is not reliable?

no, if its not giving valid results than it is not reliable. if it isnt reliable, the results arent valid.

why is it true that reliability is a characteristic of a measure regardless of the measure, but validity depends on what the measure is used for?

a measurement could be valid for one thing but not the other, where as reliability is referring to the results given

what is face validity?

whether a test or measurement appears to measure what it claims to measure, based on a superficial or subjective judgment — ie: depression survey asking about mood. It seems appropriate because mood relates to depression, even without deeper analysis.

why is face validity important?

it ensures that a measurement is actually measuring what its supposed to measure

which validity are you using when asking:

how well did the researchers measure sensitivity to tastes in this study?

construct validity: ensures that the measure truly reflects the underlying characteristic or construct being studied.

for his research methods class, felipe plans to watch how students treat other children in their classrooms who have ADHD. he will evaluate how +/- the children are treated by their classmates. this is an example of what type of measurement?

observational measurement

categorical variable

represents distinct categories or groups: labels and names rather than numerical values: gender, marital status, color

quantitative variable

can be measuered and expressed numerically.

ordinal

ranking; meaningful values but unequal intervals between units; educational level

interval

equal intervals between units but no true zero; temperature (0 degrees sdoes not mean absence of temperature)

ratio

equal intervals and a true zero; age — zero indicates a starting point; and you can compare ages (10 is twice as old as 5)

you decide to investigate how exercise affects academic performance. you are interested in people who already exercise regularly, so you head to the gym to recruit participants. this describes the ____ sampling technique.

• simple random

• stratified

• systematic

• cluster

• convenience

• purposive

• snowball

• quota

convenience sampling

a school principal wants to collect data on bullying in the school. she stands at the door to the school and selects the first 10 students from each grade level to come in the door. this describes the ____ technique.

• simple random

• stratified

• systematic

• cluster

• convenience

• purposive

• snowball

• quota

purposive: you want people who exercise regularly so you go to the gym

qualitative research

surveys and observations ( non-numerical data)

quantitative research

data consists of numbers and are analyzed using statistical techniques

what is the purpose of quantitaive research ?

examines associations between variables, predict outcomes, and make comparisons

what is the purpose of qualitative research?

obtaining an in depth account of particp. perspective of their own experiences

what is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research?

qualitative research focuses on obtaining in-depth info while quant. just wants specific pieces. qual: focuses on the person, quant: not so much about experience

top-down approach

researcher uses a theory first approach where the researcher tests preconceptions and previously established theories w the collected data.

bottom-down approach

researcher uses info provided from the participants direct experiences to develop a theory

how are top down & bottom up approaches different?

top: makes a theory based prediction first, then confirms or rejects prediction while bottom up gathers info first, and then comes up with a theory.

what are the various types of interviews?

• structured

• unstructured

• semi-structured

• critical incident

structured interview

researcher prepares specific questions and asks them in a fixed order

unstructured interview

researcher anticipates topics, but does not plan to ask specific questions or the order. more of a convo

semi-structured

combo of structured and unstructured, some are planned but is still flexible

critical incident technique

purposefully directs the interviewee to focus on a key event or specific behavior

what is interviewer bias?

bias that is due to the interviewers tone, questions, wording, body language, etc. to influence the partic. responses

how can interviewer bias affect interviews?

Interviewer bias can lead to unfair evaluations, favoritism, and inconsistent standards, impacting candidate selection and overall hiring decisions.

what are the characteristics of a good interviewer?

be fully knowledgeable, practice to answer questions clearly, and be attentive and focused.

when would you use a structured interview?

when you already have a clear understanding of your topic

when would you use a semi-structured interview?

to collect qualitative, open-ended data, to explore participant thoughts, feelings and beliefs about a particular topic; and to delve deeply into personal and sometimes sensitive issues

when would you want to use an unstructured interview?

unstructured interviews are very flexible, allowing the researcher to develop a rapport with the participant. helps the interviewer to get quality insights into the participants' beliefs, thoughts, perceptions, and experience

what is grounded theory?

where the researcher does not have any explicit theories or hypotheses to test prior research.

how do researchers use grounded theory in qualitative data analysis?

they use info from participants to generate categories and build a theory

what is convo analysis?

technique that involves an exam of the natural patterns of dialogue, which focuses on features such as turn taking, gaze direction, and how speakers sequence speech

what is content analysis?

technique that involves the systematic analysis of communication whereby researchers organize responses in order to summarize the substance of the communication

what are the types of coding used in content analysis?

continuous recording, interval recording, duration recording, and frequency-count recording.

continuous recording

documenting all behaviors throughout the day

interval recording

certain parts of the day: after 12 and before 12

duration recording

time passed between ____ and ___

frequency count recording

number of time something happens throughout the day

what are the different approaches in qualit. research?

operationalization: self-report

participants self report their own experiences

operationalization: observational

defining and measuring variables through direct observation of behaviors or phenomena in natural settings.

operationalization: physiological

involves measuring biological indicators, such as heart rate, blood pressure, or hormone levels, to assess psychological or behavioral constructs.

what are three aspects to consider regarding construct validity

1. choosing question formats

2. writing well-worded questions

3. encouraging accurate responses

example of an open-ended question

“what do you think of this class?”

example of a forced-choice question

yes or no: 1. i really like to be the center of attention 2. it makes me uncomfortable to be the center of attention

example of a likert scale 1-5 question

I would recommend this brand to others (strongly disagree to strongly agree) - 1 thru 5

example. of a semantic differential format question

how hard is this class? difficult 1 2 3 4 5 easy : chooses a point between two opposing ends

what are the problems in writing “well worded questions”?

can be leading, double barreled or negatively worded?

what does leading question mean?

“do you agree..” : prompts the desired answer

what does double-barreled question mean?

“do you enjoy ___ and ___” asks about more than one topic but only allows for a single answer

wht does negatively worded question mean?

“people who do not drive with a suspended license should never be punished.” disagreement would be a “good” or socially desirable answer.

what does acquiescence mean?

the tendency of respondents to agree with statements or questions, often regardless of their actual opinion; yea-saying

what does fence sitting mean?

a response pattern where individuals avoid taking a clear stance on an issue, often selecting neutral or middle options in surveys.

how does one combat fence sitting?

take away the neutral option

what is socially desirable responding?

responding in a way that is socially desirable or “makes them look good”

how does one combat socially desirable responding?

allow anonymity, neutral wording

what are some other reasons for why people give inaccurate responses?

memories of events may not be accurate (retrospective bias), self reporting more than they can know, rating products

survey items that can be completed with any response chosen by the participant are called _____ questions, whereas survey items that mustc be completed with one of the response options provided by the researchers are called ____ questions.

open ended: force response

what is the observation method?

viewing an occurrence for a scientific purpose

when do we use observational research?

high external validity

laboratory observation

data collection in a controlled setting of a lab; poor ecological validity.

naturalistic observation

technique in which researchers observe events as they occur in a natural setting; outside the lab

participant observation

an observational data collection technique in which the observer participates with those being observed; researcher gains a close familiarity with the group under observation

ecological validity

degree to which the research situation re-creates the psychological experiences that participants would have in real life.

external validity

extent to which study findings are applicable or generalize outside the data collection setting to other persons in other places at other times

internal validity

the extent to which the observed results represent the truth in the population we are studying

how do you develop a coding system and protocol for collecting observational data?

• clearly define your research questions and objectives

• then identify relevant behaviors to observe, categorize them into distinct codes

• establish clear definitions for each code

• create a standardized procedure for recording observations, including details like sampling methods and recording format, ensuring consistency and reliability in your data collection process

what are the appropriate procedures and training for recording observations?

• clearly define your research questions and objectives

• then identify relevant behaviors to observe, categorize them into distinct codes

• establish clear definitions for each code

• create a standardized procedure for recording observations, including details like sampling methods and recording format, ensuring consistency and reliability in your data collection process

what are the proper stats to use for observational research?

descriptive and inferential statistics