APES unit 4 (earth's systems and resources)

core

core

dense mass of solid nickel, iron, and radioactive elements that release massive amounts of heat

mantle

liquid layer of magma surrounding core, kept liquified by intense heat from core

asthenosphere

solid, flexible outer layer of mantle, beneath the lithosphere

lithosphere

thin, brittle layer of rock floating on top of mantle (broken up into tectonic plates)

crust

very outer layer of the lithosphere, earth's surface

divergent plate boundary

plates move away from each other, rising magma plume from mantle forces plates apart

divergent plate boundaries form

mid-oceanic ridges, volcanoes, seafloor spreading, and rift valleys on land

transform fault plate boundary

plates slide past each other in opposite directions

transform fault plate boundaries form

earthquakes

convergent plate boundary

plates move towards each other, leads to subduction

subduction

one plate being forced beneath another

convergent plate boundaries form

mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes

convection cycles (divergent)

magma heated by earth's core rises towards the lithosphere, cools and expands, forcing oceanic plates apart, magma cools and solidifies into new lithosphere, spreading magma forces oceanic plate into subduction zone

convergent boundary =

subduction zone

oceanic-oceanic

one plate subducts underneath other, forces magma up to the lithosphere surface, forming mid ocean volcanoes

oceanic-continental

dense oceanic plate subducts beneath continental plate and melts back into magma, forces magma up to lithosphere surface, coastal mountains, volcanoes on land, trenches, tsunamis

continental-continental

one plate subducts underneath other, forcing surface crust upward, mountains

why earthquakes happen in transform fault boundaries

pressure builds as plates keep sliding, but edges stay stuck, when stress overcomes the locked fault, plates suddenly release, slide past each other and release energy that shakes the lithosphere

ring of fire

pattern of volcanoes all around pacific plate

transform faults

likely location of earthquakes

hotspots

areas of especially hot magma rising up to lithosphere

plants in soil

anchors roots of plants and provides water, shelter, nutrients (N, P, K, Mg) for growth

water in soil

filters rainwater and runoff by trapping pollutants in pore spaces and plant roots; clean water enters groundwater and aquifers

nutrient recycling in soil

home to decomposers that break down dead organic matter and return nutrients to the soil

habitat in soil

provides habitat for organisms like earthworms, fungi, bacteria, moles, slugs, etc.

what is in soil

sand, silt, clay, humus, nutrients, water, air, and living organisms

humus

main organic part of soil; broken down biomass like leaves, dead animals, waste, etc.

nutrients in soil

ammonium, phosphates, nitrates

weathering

breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces; weather of rocks=soil formation

physical weathering

wind, rain, freezing/thawing of ice, etc.

biological weathering

roots of trees crack rocks, etc.

chemical weathering

acid rain, acids from moss/lichen

erosion

transport of weathered rock fragments by wind and rain; carried to new location and deposited (deposition)

soil formation from below

weathering of parent material produces smaller, and smaller fragment that make up geological/inorganic part of soil (sand, silt, clay, minerals)

soil formation from above

breakdown of organic matter adds humus to soil; erosion deposits soil particles from other areas, adding to soil

parent material

soil pH, nurient content

topography

steep slope=too much erosion; more level ground=deposition

climate

warmer=faster breakdown of organic matter; more precipitation=more weathering, erosion and deposition

organisms

soil organisms like bacteria, fugi, and worms breakdown organic matter

o-horizon

layer of organic matter (plant roots, dead leaves, animal waste, etc) on top of soil; provides nutrients and limits H2O loss to evaporation

a-horizon (topsoil)

layer of humus (decomposed organic matter) and minerals from parent material

b-horizon (subsoil)

lighter layer below topsoil, mostly made of minerals with little to no organic matter, still contains some nutrients

soil degradation

the loss of the ability of soil to support plant growth

loss of topsoil

tiling (turning soil for agriculture) and loss of vegetation disturb soil and make it more easily eroded by wind and rain; loss of top soil dries out soil, removes nutrients and soil organisms that recycle nutrients

compaction

compression of soil by machines (tractors, bulldozers, etc.), grazing livestock, and humans reduces ability to hold moisture; dry soil erodes more easily and supports less plant growth, less root structure, which leads to more erosion

nutrient depletion

repeatedly growing crops on the same soil removes key nutrients (N, P, K, Na, Mg) over time and reduces ability to grow future crops

soil texture

the percent of sand, silt, and clay in a soil

porosity

the amount of pore space a soil has (more sand=higher porosity; more clay=less porosity)

permeability

how easily water drain through a soil

H2O holding capacity

how well water is retained/held by a soil

porosity/permeability and H2O holding capacity has a ___________ relationship

inverse

soil fertility

ability of soil to support plant growth

factors that increase soil nutrients

organic matter, humus, decomposer activity, clay, bases

factors that decrease soil nutrients

acids, excessive rain/irrigation, excessive farming, topsoil erosion

nitrogen is _______% of the atmosphere

78; mostly in the form of N2

oxygen is _______% of the atmosphere

21; produced by photosynthesis and needed for respiration

argon is _______% of the atmosphere

0.93; noble gas

water vapor is ______% of the atmosphere

0-0.4; varies by region and conditions; acts as a ghg but not super concerning

CO2 is ______% of the atmosphere

0.04; ghg; leads to global warming, removed by photosynthesis

ghg

greenhouse gas

exosphere

outermost layer where the atmosphere merges with space

thermosphere

therm=hottest temp.; absorbs harmful x-rays and UV radiation; northern lights are here

mesosphere

meso=middle; 60-80 km, even less dense

stratosphere

s for second; 16-60 km, less dense due to less pressure from layers above; thickest ozone (O3) layer found here

peak ozone layer

absorbs UV-B and UV-C rays which can mutate DNA of animals (cancer); found in the stratosphere

troposphere

tropo=change (weather occurs here); 0-16 km, most dense due to pressure of other layers above it; most of atmos. gasses are found here, O3 is dangerous to humans in troposphere

thermosphere temp.

temp. Increases due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation; hottest place 'on' earth (3,100oF)

mesosphere temp.

temp. decreases because density decreases, leaving fewer molecules to absorb sun; coldest place on earth (-150oF)

stratosphere temp.

temp. increases because top layer of stratosphere is warmed by UV rays (like pool surface)

troposphere temp.

temp. decreases as air gets further from warmth of earth's surface

air properties

warm air rises, warm air holds more moisture than cold, rising air expands and cools, cool air can't hold as much H2O vapor (condenses into rain), after cooling and expanding, air sinks

coriolis effect

deflection of objects traveling through atm. due to spin of earth

wind between 0-30° moves from

east to west

wind between 30-60° moves from

west to east

60° and 0°

L pressure

30°

H pressure

H pressure

high pressure

L pressure

low pressure

watersheds

all of the land that drains into a specific body of water; determined by slope (human activities of a watershed impact H2O quality)

human activities that impact H2O quality of watersheds

clearcutting, urbanization, dams, mining, etc.

more vegetation=

more infiltration and groundwater recharge

greater slope=

faster velocity of runoff and more soil erosion

soil permeability=

determination of runoff vs infiltration rates

human activities of watersheds that impact H2O quality

agriculture, clearcutting, urbanization, dams, mining, etc.

human impacts on watersheds

nutrient pollution leads to eutrophication; sediment pollution; etc.

major N and P sources

discharge from sewage treatment plants animal waste from CAFOS; synthetic fertilizer from agriculture fields and lawns

solutions to watershed pollution

cover crops, riparian buffers, animal manure management, septic tank upgrades, enhanced nutrient removal

riparian buffers

any sort of plants species that you plant near a water source to absorb nutrients

insolation

the amount of solar radiation reaching an area; measured in watts/m2

solar intensity of insolation depends on

angle (how directly rays strike the earth's surface) and the amount of atmosphere rays pass through

the equator has a ________ insolation than ________ latitudes

higher

solar intensity and seasons

orbit of earth around sun and silt on axis changes angle of sun's rays; this causes varying insolation, varying length of day, and seasons; tilt of earth's axis stays fixed during orbit- solstices and equinox

tilt of earth's axis causes variation in _______

angle of insolation (which changes intensity), length of day, and season

albedo

the proportion of light that is reflected by a surface

higher albedo

reflects more light and absorbs less heat (things like snow and ice; white/lighter colors)

lower albedo

reflects less light and absorbs more heat (things like water; black/darker colors)

surface temperature is affected by _______

albedo

when sunlight is absorbed by a surface, it gives off ________

infrared radiation (heat)

urban heat island

urban area are hotter than surrounding rural area due to low albedo of blacktop

polar regions are ________ due to ________ albedo

colder; higher