Psych 125 Quiz 2

Memory as types

Explicit and Implicit

Memory as stages

Sensory, short-term, and long-term

Memory as processes

Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval

Explicit memory

Knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered

Types of explicit memory

Semantic and Episodic

Episodic Memory

Refers to the firsthand experiences that we have had

Semantic Memory

Refers to our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world

Types of implicit memory

Procedural Memory, Priming, Learning through classical conditioning

Recall Memory test

a test of memory of mind in which participants are presented with stimuli and then, after a delay, are asked to remember as many of the stimuli as possible.

Recognition Memory Test

Measure of explicit memory that involves determining whether information has been seen or learned before

Implicit Memory

a form of long-term memory that operates without conscious awareness and does not require intentional recollection of previous experiences.

Procedural memory

Often unexplainable knowledge of how to do things

Priming

exposure to one stimulus influences how a person responds to a subsequent, related stimulus

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of sensory information

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory

Short-term Memory

A place where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for more than a few seconds but usually for less than one minute

Working Memory

the small amount of information that can be held in mind and used in the execution of cognitive tasks,

Maintenance Rehearsal

process of repeating information mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory

Encoding

the act of getting information into our memory system through automatic or effortful processing

Elaborative Encoding

process new information in ways that make it more relevant or meaningful

Spacing Effect

the fact that learning is better when the same amount of study is spread out over periods of time than it is when it occurs closer together or at the same time.

Retrieval

the process of reactivating information that has been stored in memory.

Context-dependent Learning

the context in which information was learned enhances the recall of that information

State-dependent Learning

refers to superior retrieval of memories when the individual is in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding

Primacy Effect

tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented early in a list

Recency Effect

the tendency to better remember stimuli that are presented later in a list.

Retroactive Interference

learning something new impairs our ability to retrieve information that was learned earlier.

Proactive Interference

earlier learning impairs our ability to encode information that we try to learn later

Prototype

member of the category that is most average or typical of the category.

Schemas

patterns of knowledge in long-term memory that help us organize information

Long-term Potentiation

the strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons as result of frequent stimulation\

What is A

Cerebellum

What is B

Hippocampus

What is C

Amygdala

Amnesia

Memory Disorder that involved the inability to remember information

Retrograde Amnesiua

memory disorder that produces an inability to retrieve events that occurred before a given time.

Anterograde Amnesia

the inability to transfer information from short-term into long-term memory, making it impossible to form new memories.

Construction

Formulation of new memories

Reconstruction

Process of bringing up old memories

Misinformation Effect Paradigm

holds that after exposure to additional and possibly inaccurate information, a person may misremember the original event.

False Memory Syndrome

Recall of false autobiographical memories

Schacter’s Seven Sins of Memory

Transience

Absentmindedness

Blocking

Misattribution

Suggestibility

Bias

Persistance

Transience

memories can fade over time

absentmindedness

lapses in memory caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else

Blocking

can’t access stored information (

Misattribution

when you confuse the source of your information.

proactive interference

when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information.

Retroactive interference

happens when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information.

Problem solving strategies

Trial and Error

Algorithm

Heuristic

Algorithm

problem-solving formula that provides you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome

heuristic

a general problem-solving framework- Mental shortcuts

Functional fixedness

type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for.

Hindsight bias

leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t.

Representative bias

describes a faulty way of thinking, in which you make a decision or judgment based on your perception of the similarity of the person or thing to your existing stereotypes and prior beliefs

availability heuristic

you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision

Decision Biases

Anchoring

Confirmation

Hindsight

Representative

Availability

Anchoring bias

Tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when making decisions or problem-solving

Availability Bias

Decision is based upon either an available precedent or an example that may be faulty

Classical Conditioning

a process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism

unconditioned response (UCR)

a natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus.

neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

conditioned response (CR)

The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus

higher-order conditioning, or second-order conditioning

the first stimulus is classically conditioned to an unconditioned stimulus, then a second stimulus is classically conditioned to the first, thereby conditioning it back to the original unconditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period

stimulus discrimination

When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar,

stimulus generalization

when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus,

Rooting Reflex

When the baby’s cheeck is stroked the baby will turn their head toward the stroking, open theur mouth and try to suck

Thus ensures the infants feeding will be a reflexive habit

Blink Reflex

A light is flashed in the baby’s eyes and the baby closes both eyes.

Protects the eyes from strong and potentially dangerous stimuli

Withdrawl Reflex

A soft pinprick is applied to the sole of the baby’s foot then the baby will flex the lef

Keeps the exploring infant away from painful stimuli

Tonic Neck Reflex

The baby is laid down on its back and the baby turns its head to one side and extends the arm on the same side

helps develop hand-eye coordination

Grasp reflex

An object is pressed into the palm of the baby- the baby grasps the object pressed and can even hold its own weight for a brief period

Helps in exploratory learning

Moro Reflex

Loud noises or a sudden drop in height while holding the baby- the baby extends arms and legs and quickly brings them in as if trying to grasp something

Protects from falling; could have assisted infants in holding onto their mothers during rough traveling

Stepping reflex

The baby is suspended with bare feet just above a surface and is moved forward-baby makes stepping motions as if trying to walk

Helps encourage motor development

Habituation

the decreased responsiveness toward a stimulus after it has been presented numerous times in succession

Habituation procedure

baby is placed in a high chair and presented with visual stimuli while a video camera records the infant’s eye and face movements

Assimilation

they use already developed schemas to understand new information

sensorimotor stage

the cognitive stage that begins at birth and lasts until around the age of 2. It is defined by the direct physical interactions that babies have with the objects around them

Object Permanence

refer to the child’s ability to know that an object exists even when the object cannot be perceived.

preoperational stage

children begin to use language and to think more abstractly about objects, but their understanding is more intuitive and without much ability to deduce or reason

Theory of mind

the ability to take another person’s viewpoint, and the ability to do so increases rapidly during the preoperational stage.C

Concrete operational stage

marked by more frequent and more accurate use of transitions, operations, and abstract concepts, including those of time, space, and numbers.

Conservation

the understanding that changes in the form of an object do not necessarily mean changes in the quantity of the object.

Formal operational Stage

marked by the ability to think in abstract terms and to use scientific and philosophical lines of thought.

Self-concept

a knowledge representation or schema that contains knowledge about us, including our beliefs about our personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles, as well as the knowledge that we exist as individuals

longitudinal research designs

research designs in which individuals in the sample are followed and contacted over an extended period of time, often over multiple developmental stages.

cross-sectional research design

age comparisons are made between samples of different people at different ages at one time

Cohort Effects

refer to the possibility that differences in cognition or behavior at two points in time may be caused by differences that are unrelated to the changes in age.

Puberty

developmental period in which hormonal changes cause rapid physical alterations in the body, culminating in sexual maturity

primary sex characteristics

the sex organs concerned with reproduction

secondary sex characteristics

(features that distinguish the two sexes from each other but are not involved in reproduction

Menarche

the first menstrual period, typically experienced at around 12 or 13 years of age

Marcia’s stages of identity development

Identity-diffusion status

Foreclosure Status

Moratorium Status

Identity-achievement status

Identity-diffusion Status

The individual does not have firm commitments regarding the issues in question and is not making progress toward them.

Foreclosure Status

The individual has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established an identity based on the choices or values of others.

Moratorium Status

The individual is exploring various choices but has not yet made a clear commitment to any of them.

Identity- Achievement Status

The individual has attained a coherent and committed identity based on personal decisions.

Self-reference effect

Info better learned if it is linked to thoughts about self