sustaining ecosystems

what is the interdependence in an ecosystem of climate, soil, water, plants and animals?

• ecosystem interdependence refers to the reliance of climate, soil, water, plants, and animals on each other

• climate affects water availability and temperature, impacting plant and animal growth

• soil provides nutrients for plants, which in turn provide food and habitat for animals

• water is vital for all organisms and nutrient cycling

• plants produce oxygen and food through photosynthesis, sustaining animals

• animals contribute to seed dispersal, pollination, and nutrient cycling

• these components are interconnected, ensuring ecosystem stability and productivity

outline the global distribution of polar regions, coral reefs, grasslands, temperate forests, tropical forests and hot deserts

• polar- found near the north and south poles, only specialised plants and animals survive here

• temperate deciduous forest- found across europe and in the usa, these trees lose their leaves every year and thrive in mild and wet conditions known as a temperate maritime climate

• temperate grassland- found in hungary, south africa, argentina and the usa, consists of grass and trees that thrive in a temperate continental climate of moderate rainfall and mild conditions

• desert- found near the tropics of cancer and capricorn, conditions here are very hot and dry, plants and animals are specially adapted to survive in the harsh conditions

• tropical rainforest- found near the equator, the climate is hot and humid and many different species can be found here

• savanna grassland- found mainly in central africa, southern india, northern australia and central south america, long grasses and a few scattered trees are found in these hot and dry conditions

• coral reefs- found in a zone extending from 30° north to 30° south of the equator, they form some of the most diverse ecosystems on earth

what is the climate, flora and fauna like in these ecosystems?

• polar:

  -climate: in antarctica, the mean temperature in winter is -60°c and -28°c in summer, and in the arctic the mean temperature in winter is -40°c and 0°c in summer

  -fauna: in antarctica there are penguins, they are adapted as they are white on their underside and black on their backs and they have a thick layer of blubber to insulate them against the cold and in the arctic there are arctic foxes, their fur is white to camouflage against snow and ice to protect themselves from predators they also have fur on the soles of their feet to grip ice

  -flora: they also have the antarctic hair grass, with shallow roots to keep it grounded against strong winds and it self-pollinates so it doesn’t have to rely on other plants and in the arctic there is the pasque flower, which has lots of tiny, silky hairs to insulate it, it also grows low to the ground to protect itself from strong winds

• temperate deciduous forest:

  -climate: these trees lose their leaves every year and thrive in mild and wet conditions known as a temperate maritime climate

  -fauna: they also have black bears, with a heavy coat made of many layers of fur so it’s able to cope with freezing temperatures, they are adapted to climb and live in trees with their long paws and they have very good hearing which is useful when their prey is camouflaged

  -flora: in temperate forests there are beach trees which have very long lifespans so the number of them doesn’t naturally decline, they also have a thick canopy of leaves which develop in the spring which allow them to compete successfully for sunlight, they also lose their leaves in the winter to protect them from being damaged by strong winds in winter

• temperate grassland:

  -climate: consists of grass and trees that thrive in a temperate continental climate of moderate rainfall and mild conditions

  -fauna: they have praire dogs with sharp incisors that help them consume tough grassland plants and they have strong hind legs meaning they can stand upright and have an increased awareness of their surroundings

  -flora: there are trees called baobab trees which are adapted for nine-month droughts as it stores water in its thick trunk and survives without leaves for most of the year, they can live up to 5,000 years and the bark is shiny to reflect light, moderating temperature

• desert:

  -climate: found near the tropics of cancer and capricorn, conditions there are very hot and dry, plants and animals are specially adapted to survive in the harsh conditions

  -fauna: camels are adapted for these conditions as they have long eyelashes, hairy ears and closing nostrils to prevent sand entering, they have wide feet that don’t sink in sand, they can go without water for over a week because they can drink gallons in one go, they can go months without food as they store fat in their humps and their thick fur allows them to keep warm at night

  -flora: there are cacti with thick, waxy skin to reduce water loss, they have thorns and thin leaves to reduce water loss, they have spikes to protect themselves from animals and they have deep roots to tap groundwater

• tropical rainforest:

  -climate: found near the equator, the climate is hot and humid and many different species can be found here

  -fauna: the sloth uses camouflage and moves very slowly to make it difficult for predators to spot, the toucan has a long, large bill to allow it to reach and cut fruit from branches that are too weak to support its weight and the spider monkey has long, strong limbs to help it to climb through the rainforest trees

  -flora: lianas, these are woody vines that have roots in the ground but climb up the trees to reach the sunlight, their leaves and flowers grow in the canopy and tree trunks, these are tall and thin to allow trees to reach the sunlight, the bark on these trees is smooth to allow water to flow down to the roots easily

• savannah grassland:

  -climate: found mainly in central africa, southern india, northern australia and central south america, they have long grasses and a few scattered trees are found in these hot and dry conditions

  -fauna: they have praire dogs with sharp incisors that help them consume tough grassland plants and they have strong hind legs meaning they can stand upright and have an increased awareness of their surroundings

  -flora: there are trees called baobab trees which is adapted for nine-month droughts as it stores water in its thick trunk and survives without leaves for most of the year, they can live up to 5,000 years and the bark is shiny to reflect light, moderating temperature

• coral reefs:

  -climate: coral reefs have warm water (20-32°c) as the sunlight must be able to reach the coral or algae otherwise they won’t be able to photosynthesise and produce food

  -fauna: they have butterfly fish, they are very thin so they can fit easily between small gaps in the reef and they have long, thin, slightly rounded teeth which are perfect for their diet of shrimp and worms

  -flora: they have sea grasses, sea grasses have roots in the sediment of the sea floor, this allows them to keep sturdy against the flow of water and get nutrients from the sediment and their leaf blades are flexible, moving with the water current without uprooting the plant

what are the distinctive characteristics of a tropical rainforest?

• climate:

  -very wet with over 2,000 mm of rainfall per year

  -very warm with an average daily temperature of 28°c, the temperature never drops below 20°c and rarely exceeds 35°c

  -the atmosphere is hot and humid

  -the climate is consistent all year round, there are no seasons

• soil profile:

  -most of the soil is not very fertile

  -a thin layer of fertile soil is found at the surface where the dead leaves decompose

  -nutrient cycling is very rapid due to the humid conditions that help dead matter to decompose quickly, bacteria and fungi also help to break down dead matter and return nutrients to the soil

  -it is red in colour because it is rich in iron

  -due to heavy rainfall the nutrients are quickly washed out of the soil

• water cycle:

  -the roots of trees, plants and shrubs take up water from the soil

  -the rain is intercepted by trees as it falls

  -as the temperature in the rainforest increases during the day, it causes the water to evaporate into the atmosphere

  -this water vapour cools, condenses and forms clouds to make the next day's rain

  -this is known as convectional rainfall, the whole process is repeated daily and the cycle continues

• nutrient cycle:

  -the warm, damp conditions on the forest floor and the abundance of insects enables the rapid breakdown of dead leaves and plant material

  -this humus provides nutrients that are easily absorbed by plant roots because of the abundance of rainforest vegetation, nutrients are used up quickly

  -this cycle is continuous as long as deforestation does not occur

  -unfortunately, if the protective canopy (umbrella) of vegetation is removed, the soil quickly becomes infertile as nutrients are leached out of the soil, and the top soil is easily washed away into rivers by heavy rainfall

what goods and services do tropical rainforests provide us with?

• goods:

  -food: rainforests can produce food, such as nuts, which forms part of the diet of local people in the amazon

  -cash crops: rainforests also produce cash crops, such as the development of wild coffee that resists disease and has a high yield

  -medicines: rainforests have also been used to search for medicines, for example, the rosy periwinkle from the rainforests of madagascar (which can be poisonous) can help treat childhood leukaemia

  -raw materials: rainforests can be logged to produce timber such as hardwoods for garden furniture exports and other goods such as palm oil are used in cosmetics, confectionary, detergents and many other products

  -tourism: many people from rich nations can afford to visit tropical rainforests to experience their beauty and unique environment, this creates income for local people and may not damage the rainforest much, though it can cause some big problems

• services:

  -regulate the composition of the atmosphere: all tropical rainforests, such as the amazon, help to offset the effects of climate change by taking in carbon dioxide through photosynthesis and releasing oxygen, thereby regulating levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

  -maintain soil health: in areas such as the amazon, tropical rainforests have produced rich fertile top soils due to the rapid leaf fall and decomposition which rapidly recycles nutrients

  -water regulation: trees intercept rainfall and reduce flood risk as well as being crucial in controlling and contributing to precipitation, this in turn reduces forest fire risk, drought risk and extreme weather risks and are therefore an especially important component of the water cycle

what are the impacts in the tropical rainforest from human activities?

• logging: commercial logging companies cut down trees for timber, which is mostly sold to developed countries, in most cases, large areas of forest are destroyed just to remove a few highly valued trees, the effect of this devastation has lasting consequences:

  -heavy machinery compacts soil and makes it more vulnerable to erosion

  -silt is washed into rivers

  -logging roads open up the area to new settlers who remove even more trees

• agriculture: land is cleared and planted with cash crops, usually just one- such as palm oil, alternatively, it will be used for grazing by cattle ranchers, most cash crops and cattle are eventually sold to developed countries, these actions affect the soil for future use because fertility falls after just a few years, only farmers who can afford fertilisers will be able to use the soil to grow crops in the future, if they can't afford fertilisers, farmers simply move on and clear more land, so more forest is lost

• mineral extraction: land is completely deforested, soil is often removed with high-pressure hoses and chemicals are used, the run-off goes into local rivers and pollutes them

• road builiding: loggers and miners build roads to get their materials out, people use the roads to enter the forest and build new settlements and set up industries, the trans-amazonian highway in south america is 5,300 km long and has opened up some remote parts of brazil to development

• dam building: hydro-electric dams provide energy but also result in deforestation, problems include:

  -flooding of large areas of forest

  -people may have to move

  -drowned forest rots and adds carbon to the atmosphere

• fuel: many people rely on wood for their main source of fuel, particularly in developing countries, as the population grows, more wood is chopped down

how can rainforests be sustainably managed? (chalalan ecolodge)

• socially sustainable:

  -50% of its profits are reinvested into the community in the areas of healthcare, infrastructure and education

  -more than 70 families receive economic benefits from profits and employment

• economically sustainable:

  -up to 24 employees work as full-time cooks, guides, cleaners and administrators

  -chalalan receives approximately 1,000 tourists per year

• environmentally sustainable:

  -70 families volunteered to build the ecolodge, the structure was made from local rainforest material that had been harvested in a sustainable manner

  -solar energy is used to light the lodges

  -liquid waste from showers and the kitchen is treated using the sun and biological processes

what are the characteristics of antarctica and artic?

antarctica

• land and sea:

  -continent covered by an immense ice cap and surrounded by the antarctic ocean

  -mountains up to 3,794 metres high

  -ice 4.5 km thick in places

• climate:

  -very cold due to lack of direct sunlight

  -temperatures average -28°C in summer and -60°C in winter

  -dry

• flora:

  -almost no vegetation

• fauna:

  -penguins, seals and whales

• human activities:

  -scientific bases

  -tourist visitors

• the future:

  -threats from climate change

  -extraction of oil, gas and metals

arctic

• land and sea:

  -not a land continent

  -ocean surrounded by continents with large islands, eg Greenland, Ellesmere Island

  -ice reaches height of 2 to 3 metres

  -sea pack ice

• climate:

  -cold due to lack of direct sunlight - but not as cold as antarctica

  -temperatures average 0°C in summer and -40°C in winter

• flora:

  -low shrubs, sedges and grasses, mosses and liverworts

• fauna:

  -polar bears, arctic foxs, reindeers and wolves

  -seals, whales and bird species

• human activity:

  -human population north of 60°n greater than 4 million people

  -many indigenous people

  -mining activities

• the future:

  -threats from climate change

  -extraction of oil and gas and other resources

  -claims of sovereignty

what is the interdependence of climate, soil, water, plants, animals and human activity in the arctic?

• humans⇄climate

  -humans are dependent on the climate beacuse they hunt on sea ice, which can only be maintained in a cold enough climate, climate is dependent on humans as we can worsen the climate change by burning more fossil fuels and deforesting

• water⇄plants

  -plants need water to photosynthesise and grow, water relies on plants as transpiration and absorption by plants affects the availability of water

• soil⇄plants

  -soil is dependent on plants to decompose and receive nutrients, plants are reliant on soil because it provides nutrients and a stable layer for their roots to anchor in

• humans⇄animals

  -humans are dependent on animals because in an ecosystem with little plant life, hunting arctic animals provides food to sustain the innuit people, animals are dependent on humans as they can reduce the number of species

what are the impacts of human activity on ecosystems in antarctica?

• chemical contamination (chemicals from fuel spills and energy generation being accidentally released into the environment):

  -these chemicals can be toxic and cause fatal damage to wildlife if ingested or inhaled

  -chemical spills destroy ecosystems at a faster rate compared to other continents

• disturbance to flora and fauna(human approach, handling, construction of infrastructure, noise and visual intrusion from aircraft operations):

  -as the antarctic habitat is not adapted to human practices, such as trampling, it is particularly vulnerable to these activities and many populations have been known to have decreased as a result

• global warming (humans burning fossil fuels to release greenhouse gases)

  -a warmer antarctica is a ripe home for new species, adapted to warmer conditions

  -when new species are introduced, possibly free from predators, they have the tendency to dominate food chains, wiping out species in the process

  -when and how much ice freezes each year can have devastating effects on species' survival, especially when rapidly changing

• introduction of non-indigenous species (transfers of living material (e.g. seeds) occurring from cargo, vehicles, food, clothing and people within the antarctic):

  -the more the antarctic is home to alien flora and fauna, the less different it is from the rest of the world

  -existing antarctic food chains have no capacity for alien organisms, unless they replace other organisms

  -in other words, if an alien life form reproduces to such an extent that it is in a greater supply than a life form that a specific animal feeds on, this specific animal will try to adapt to encompassing this alien life form- not rich in the nutrients the animal needs to survive in antarctic conditions- into its diet

  -it also poses a defeatist element to scientific research; scientists want to study antarctica, not a continent whose wildlife has been colonised by other continents

• exploitation of living marine resources: (overfishing and whaling for human/farmed-fish food, or human health supplements)

  -while some species of marine wildlife, such as fur seal, have recovered since this problem has started to be managed, some are simply in such a high demand that this isn't possible

  -when marine life is over-exploited, a section of that area's food chain is removed, this can pose devastating consequences for antarctica as the species below the species that is being exploited now have no predators and can reproduce in dangerous amounts, while the species above have no prey and also face extinction

  -this is why exploiting one antarctic species is also exploiting antarctica

what is a small-scale sustainable management case study in antarctica? (eco-tourism)

• keep your distance from wildlife:

  -the wildlife in antarctica is adapted to harsh conditions and climate

  -therefore, by disturbing the animal’s food chains and other various aspects their habitat could be destroyed, so keeping distance from the wildlife will allow people to visit antarctica without compromising the safety of the animals and wildlife

  -however, animals may come close to the visitors

• food and personal items must remain secured on the boat:

  -since decomposition is slow in cold climates, any rubbish/ lost items would take a long time to break down meaning animals could get caught in litter

  -however, you may accidentally lose items

• don’t disturb any freshwater lakes or streams:

  -lakes and streams take decades to recover from pollution, so disturbing these bodies of water will harm animals and wildlife

  -however, visitors may not be able to partake in water activities such as kayaking

• make sure to clean your clothes and belongings before coming ashore:

  -if there are seeds or leaves on your clothing, when you come onto shore these may be blown off your clothing by the strong winds and plant themselves on antarctic soil

  -this means new species will be introduced to antarctica, which may threaten the extremely fragile ecosystem

  -however, it is impossible to ensure that your clothes are clean from any plants as the seeds are very small

• issues that make tourism in antarctica unsustainable:

  -rapid growth in tourism adds pressure to the fragile habitat which is straining under the effects of climate change, an increased number in tourists also risks visitor safety

  -in 2007, a vessel carrying 100 passengers and 50 crew slipped beneath the waves, it carried more than 55,000 gallons of oil and petrol polluting the water and impacting the fragile environment

  -there is evidence that populations of penguins and other wildlife have been disturbed by human activity and with tourism increasing, the wildlife is at a much higher risk of getting damaged

what is a global scale sustainable management case study in antarctica? (the antarctic treaty)

• the antarctic treaty includes:

  -it classes antarctica as a place for peace and science

  -it creates rules to protect the antarctic’s environments

  -it provides environmental advice to meetings for the treaty

  -it creates rules about human impact

  -commerical resource mining is indefinitely banned, except for the purposes of scientific research

• advantages:

  -the ats has limited environmental damage within antarctica

  -there has been no armed conflict within antarctica since the antarctic treaty was signed

  -it is one of the few international agreements of the 20th century to have succeeded

  -it has permitted antarctic science to flourish and many issues of global concern such as the ozone hole have unfolded there

  -it has brought together many different nations, some of whom have been in conflict

• disadvantages:

  -government by consensus (where everyone has to agree) means they are achieving the least amount at the slowest possible rate of progress

  -the ats has only succeeded as the treaty nations fear what may happen if it failed

  -much of the science conducted in antarctica is poor and is done to disguise potential rights to mineral exploitation

  -the ats is run by a select group of developed countries for their own benefit

  -the ats has focused on the issues that are easily solved, for example, scientific cooperation, whilst avoiding fundamental problems such as the competing territorial claims

  -the ats does not provide any benefits for countries unable to pay for expensive research programmes within antarctica