Unit 0: The Foundations of Psychology as a Science

Flashcards covering the foundational concepts, research methods, ethical guidelines, and statistical interpretation in psychology as presented in Unit 0.

Psychology

The scientific study used to decode human behavior and mental processes.

Human Behavior

Observable actions or reactions of individuals or groups, including physical actions, emotional responses, social interactions, and learned behaviors.

Mental Processes

The internal operations of the mind that are not directly observable, such as cognition, emotion, perception, and motivation.

Four Main Goals of Psychology

To describe, explain, predict, and change human thought and behavior.

Empirical Evidence

Observable and measurable data gathered through experiments, surveys, and case studies.

The Scientific Attitude

An approach to inquiry built on three key elements: curiosity, skepticism, and humility.

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions but examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Hindsight Bias

Also known as the ‘I-knew-it-all-along’ phenomenon; the belief, after an event has occurred, that one predicted it beforehand.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms preexisting beliefs while discounting contradictory evidence.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias where a person overestimates the accuracy of their own knowledge and judgments.

Theory

A structured explanation based on principles that helps organize observations and make predictions about behavior.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Falsifiable

A characteristic of a hypothesis meaning it is capable of being disproven through evidence.

Operational Definition

A statement that specifies exactly how a concept is measured or manipulated in a study to allow for precise replication.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to see if the same results can be obtained, thereby confirming reliability.

Peer Reviewers

Experts who evaluate the quality and validity of research before it is published to maintain scientific integrity.

Case Study

A non-experimental research method involving an in-depth investigation of a single individual or group, such as the studies of Phineas Gage or Victor of Aveyron.

Correlational Study

A research method that examines the statistical relationship between two or more variables without establishing causation.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic to increase statistical power and generalizability.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring settings without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Population

The entire group that a researcher is interested in studying and to which they want to generalize findings.

Sample

A smaller subset of a population selected to participate in a study.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample of the population.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the demographics and characteristics of the larger population.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of respondents to give answers they believe are socially acceptable rather than truthful.

Self-report Bias

Inaccurate information provided by participants about themselves, often due to flawed memories or presentation concerns.

Experimenter Bias

A phenomenon where a researcher's expectations unintentionally influence the outcome of a study.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical value ranging from $-1$ to $+1$ that represents the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where both variables increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where one variable increases while the other decreases.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship between variables even when no such relationship exists.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward the average over time.

Experiment

The only research method that can establish cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating variables.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor in an experiment that is deliberately manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured as an outcome of the manipulation of the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

An external factor other than the independent variable that might influence the results of an experiment.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, used as a baseline for comparison.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone, where a participant experiences change because they believe they are receiving treatment.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure where neither the participants nor the researchers know who has received the treatment or the placebo.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure they meet ethical standards and protect participant rights.

Informed Consent

An ethical principle where research participants are told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Qualitative Research

Research focusing on in-depth understanding and rich descriptions using tools like structured interviews and case studies.

Quantitative Research

Research emphasizing numerical data and statistical analysis, often using Likert scales or standardized tests.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, calculated by adding the scores and dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve where approximately $68\%$ of data falls within one standard deviation of the mean.

Positively Skewed Distribution

A distribution where the tail extends to the right and the mean is greater than the median.

Negatively Skewed Distribution

A distribution where the tail extends to the left and the mean is less than the median.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance, typically defined as $p < .05$.