Apologetics Unit 2

argument

a connected series of statements intended to establish a definite proposition; offering a set of reasons or evidence in support of a conclusion; (it is also the logical terminology of the 3rd act of the mind which is evaluated based on its validity)

apologetics

Reasoned argument used to defend or justify a theory or idea (often religious teachings/doctrines)

inductive reasoning

reasoning from particular premises to a universal & probable conclusion

deductive reasoning

reasoning from a universal premise to a particular & certain conclusion

simple apprehension

1st act of the mind: Understanding the intended meaning of a concept or term

term

logical terminology used for the 1st act of the mind (expresses a concept and is evaluated based on clarity)

judging

2nd act of the mind: Relating two concepts

proposition

logical terminology used for the 2nd act of the mind (expresses a judgment and is evaluated based on whether or not it is true)

reasoning

3rd act of the mind: Drawing a conclusion from two or more judgments

valid

describes a well-reasoned argument that may or may not have clear terms and/or true propositions

sound

an argument that is both true and valid (i.e., clear terms, true propositions, valid argument) such that its conclusion must logically be accepted

law of identity

a thing is what it is (x = x)

law of the excluded middle

a proposition is either true or not true; there is no 3rd option (either x or ~x is true)

law of non-contradiction

a thing cannot both be and not be at the same time and in the same manner (x ≠ ~x)

conclusion

what you are trying to prove to be true in an argument

premise

reasons or evidence for the truth of the conclusion of an argument

subject

what you are talking about in a sentence

predicate

what you say about the subject of a sentence

simple syllogism

a basic form of argument that has 3 statements (2 premises & a conclusion)

major term

the predicate of the conclusion of a syllogism

minor term

the subject of the conclusion of a syllogism

middle term

term that appears in both premises, but not in the conclusion, of a syllogism

major premise

the premise of a syllogism that contains the major term

minor premise

the premise of a syllogism that contains the minor term

fallacy

a failure in reasoning

ad hominem

Fallacy: Attacking the character or motives of a person rather than the idea itself

ad ignorantiam

Fallacy: Assuming something is true because it has not been proven false

ad misericordiam

Fallacy: Appeal to pity

ad nauseam

Fallacy: Trying to prove something by saying it again and again

ad numerum/ad populum

Fallacy: Trying to prove something by showing how many people think it is true or showing the public agrees with you

ad vericundiam

Fallacy: Trying to demonstrate the truth of a proposition with an illegitimate appeal to authority

circulus in demonstrando

Fallacy: When someone uses what they are trying to prove as part of their proof

cum hoc (ergo propter hoc)

Fallacy: Mistaking correlation for causation -- Thinking that if two things occur simultaneously, then one is the cause of the other

correlation

a connection between two or more things

causation

bringing about an effect or a result

dicto simpliciter

Fallacy: Stereotyping -- making a sweeping statement and expecting it to be true of every specific case

bifurcation

Fallacy: Falsely assumes two categories that are mutually exclusive and exhaustive -- something is either a member of one or the other but not both or a third category

fallacy of Composition

Fallacy: Assuming what is true of a part is true of the whole

post hoc (ergo propter hoc)

Fallacy: Mistaking correlation for causation -- Assuming that because event A happened before event B, then event A caused event B

red herring

Fallacy: Introducing irrelevant facts or arguments to distract from the question at hand

tu quoque

Fallacy: Defending an error in one's own reasoning by pointing out that one's opponent made the same error -- (this is a specific type of ad hominem)

straw man

Fallacy: Refuting a caricatured, extreme, or overly simplistic/weak version of someone's argument, rather than the actual argument that was made (can include putting words in someone's mouth)

steelmanning

Attempting to re-express another person's position as clearly, vividly, and fairly as possible (NOT a fallacy)

plurium interrogationum

Fallacy: A complex ("loaded") question that implicitly assumes by its construction that something that has not been established to be true is in fact true