AP Psychology Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior

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195 Terms

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Physiological psychology
The branch of psychology that studies the biological bases of behavior and mental processes.
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Traits
Relatively stable characteristics or qualities that influence behavior across situations.
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Evolutionary perspective
A psychological approach that explains behavior and mental processes in terms of natural selection and adaptation.
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Heritability
A statistical measure of how much of the variation in a trait within a population is due to genetic differences.
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Environmentality
The proportion of variation in a trait that is due to environmental factors rather than genetics.
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Nature versus nurture debate
The ongoing question of how much of behavior and mental processes are shaped by genetics (nature) versus environment and experience (nurture).
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Nervous system
The body's electrochemical communication network consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and all nerves.
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Central nervous system (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord; the body's command center that processes and coordinates information.
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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
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Neurons
Specialized cells that transmit electrical and chemical signals throughout the nervous system.
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Sensory (afferent) neurons
Neurons that carry information from sensory receptors toward the brain and spinal cord.
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Motor (efferent) neurons
Neurons that carry commands from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands.
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Reflexes
Automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli that occur without conscious thought.
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Reflex arc
The neural pathway that controls a reflex action, typically involving a sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron.
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Interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that connect sensory and motor neurons and process information.
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Somatic nervous system
The division of the PNS that controls voluntary muscle movements and receives sensory information.
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Autonomic nervous system
The division of the PNS that controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing.
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Sympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for fight-or-flight responses.
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Parasympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and restores it to a resting state.
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Nerves
Bundles of axons that transmit signals between the CNS and the rest of the body.
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Soma
The cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus and keeps the cell alive.
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Dendrites
Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive incoming signals from other neurons.
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Axon
The long fiber that extends from the soma and carries electrical impulses away from the cell body toward other neurons.
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Myelin sheath
A fatty insulating layer that wraps around axons and speeds up the transmission of electrical signals.
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Nodes of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin sheath where the electrical signal is regenerated as it travels down the axon.
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Terminal buttons
Small knobs at the end of axon branches that release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
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Synapse
The tiny gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite or soma of the next neuron where chemical communication occurs.
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Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse from one neuron to another.
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Glial cells
Support cells in the nervous system that protect, nourish, and assist neurons.
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Resting membrane potential
The electrical charge of a neuron when it is not firing, typically around -70 millivolts.
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Nerve impulse (action potential)
The electrical signal that travels down the axon when a neuron fires, caused by a rapid change in membrane charge.
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Depolarization
The process by which a neuron's membrane becomes less negative inside as it fires, triggering an action potential.
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Refractory phase
The brief period after a neuron fires during which it cannot fire again, allowing time to reset.
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Excitatory
Describes neurotransmitters or signals that increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire.
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Inhibitory
Describes neurotransmitters or signals that decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire.
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Reuptake (neurotransmitters)
The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron after crossing the synapse.
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Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, memory, and the autonomic nervous system.
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Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, and appetite; low levels are linked to depression.
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Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with reward, motivation, and movement; implicated in addiction and Parkinson's disease.
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GABA
The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain that reduces neural activity and promotes calm.
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Glutamate
The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain involved in learning and memory.
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Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter and hormone involved in alertness, arousal, and the fight-or-flight response.
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Endorphins
Natural pain-relieving neurotransmitters released during exercise, excitement, or injury.
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Substance P
A neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals to the brain.
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Hormones
Chemical messengers released by glands into the bloodstream that regulate bodily functions and behavior.
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Pituitary gland
The master gland of the endocrine system that controls other glands and releases hormones regulating growth and reproduction.
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Epinephrine
A hormone (also called adrenaline) released by the adrenal glands during stress that prepares the body for fight or flight.
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Norepinephrine (endocrine)
A hormone released by the adrenal glands alongside epinephrine during stress, contributing to arousal and alertness.
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Leptin
A hormone produced by fat cells that signals the brain to reduce appetite and increase energy expenditure.
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Ghrelin
A hormone produced by the stomach that signals hunger to the brain.
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Melatonin
A hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles in response to light.
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Oxytocin
A hormone and neurotransmitter associated with bonding, trust, and social connection; released during hugging and childbirth.
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Agonist
A drug or chemical that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor.
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Antagonist
A drug or chemical that blocks or reduces the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor without activating it.
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Drugs
Chemicals that alter brain chemistry and behavior by affecting neurotransmitter systems.
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Alcohol
A depressant drug that slows CNS activity by enhancing GABA and inhibiting glutamate.
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Barbiturates
Depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and induce sleep by enhancing GABA activity.
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Tranquilizers
Depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and produce calm by slowing CNS activity.
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Caffeine
A stimulant drug that blocks adenosine receptors, increasing alertness and reducing fatigue.
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Amphetamines
Stimulant drugs that increase dopamine and norepinephrine release, boosting energy and alertness.
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Cocaine
A stimulant drug that blocks reuptake of dopamine, flooding the synapse and producing intense euphoria.
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Nicotine
A stimulant drug in tobacco that mimics acetylcholine, increasing alertness and producing mild euphoria.
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Opioids
Drugs that bind to endorphin receptors to relieve pain and produce euphoria; highly addictive.
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Hallucinogens
Drugs that alter perception and produce hallucinations by disrupting normal neurotransmitter activity.
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Dependence
A state in which a person needs a drug to function normally, experiencing withdrawal without it.
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Tolerance
The need for increasing amounts of a drug to achieve the same effect due to the brain adapting to its presence.
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Withdrawal
Physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a person stops using a drug they are dependent on.
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Hindbrain
The lower region of the brain including the cerebellum, brainstem, and medulla that controls basic survival functions.
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Cerebellum
A brain structure at the back of the hindbrain that coordinates voluntary movement, balance, and fine motor skills.
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Brain stem
The stalk-like structure connecting the brain to the spinal cord that controls basic life functions like breathing and heart rate.
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Medulla oblongata
The lower part of the brain stem that controls vital automatic functions including breathing, heart rate, and swallowing.
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Reticular activating system (RAS)
A network of neurons in the brain stem that regulates arousal, alertness, and sleep-wake transitions.
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Brain's reward system
A set of brain structures including the nucleus accumbens that release dopamine in response to pleasurable activities.
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Pons
A brain stem structure that relays signals between the cerebellum and cortex and plays a role in sleep and dreaming.
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Forebrain
The largest and most complex brain region including the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and limbic system.
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Limbic system
A set of brain structures involved in emotion, memory, and motivation including the amygdala and hippocampus.
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Thalamus
A brain structure that acts as a relay station, routing sensory information to the appropriate cortical areas.
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Hippocampus
A brain structure in the limbic system critical for forming new long-term memories.
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Anterograde amnesia
The inability to form new memories after brain damage, while memories before the damage remain intact.
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Amygdala
A limbic system structure involved in processing emotions, especially fear and aggression.
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Hypothalamus
A brain structure that regulates basic drives including hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior, and controls the pituitary gland.
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Lateral hypothalamus
A region of the hypothalamus associated with triggering hunger; stimulation causes eating.
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Ventromedial hypothalamus
A region of the hypothalamus associated with signaling fullness and stopping eating.
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Cerebral cortex
The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-order processes including thinking, perceiving, and language.
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Sensory cortex
The area of the cortex that receives and processes sensory information from the body.
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Motor cortex
The area of the cortex that controls voluntary body movements.
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Left and right cerebral hemispheres
The two halves of the cerebral cortex, each controlling the opposite side of the body and specialized for different functions.
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Corpus callosum
The thick band of nerve fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, allowing communication between them.
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Expressive aphasia (Broca's area)
A language disorder caused by damage to Broca's area in the left frontal lobe, resulting in difficulty producing speech.
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Receptive aphasia (Wernicke's area)
A language disorder caused by damage to Wernicke's area in the left temporal lobe, resulting in difficulty understanding language.
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Split-brain patients
Individuals whose corpus callosum has been severed, causing the two hemispheres to function independently.
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Cortex components - Frontal lobe
The front section of the cerebral cortex involved in planning, decision-making, impulse control, and voluntary movement.
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Cortex components - Parietal lobe
The upper back section of the cerebral cortex that processes sensory information including touch and spatial awareness.
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Cortex components - Temporal lobe
The side section of the cerebral cortex involved in hearing, language comprehension, and memory.
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Cortex components - Occipital lobe
The back section of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information.
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Association areas
Regions of the cortex that integrate information from multiple sensory and motor areas to support complex thinking.
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Apraxia
The inability to perform purposeful movements despite having intact motor and sensory function.
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Agnosia
The inability to recognize objects, faces, or sounds despite intact sensory function.
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Alexia
The inability to read despite normal vision, caused by brain damage.
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Agraphia
The inability to write despite normal hand function, caused by brain damage.