MCAT Psychology Chapter 4- Cognition, Consciousness, and Language

cognition

how the brain processes, stores, and reacts to information

frontal lobe: key for higher-order thinking

information must be encoded, stored, and retrieved

Paivio's dual-coding theory

uses verbal and visual codes

redundancy (having two ways) strengthens recall

ex: remembering dog by saying the word and picturing a dog

information processing model (four components)

1. thinking=sensation-> encoding-> storage-> analysis

2. brain must interpret stimuli before decision making

3. prior decisions can guide future problem-solving (situational modification)

4. problem-solving depends on cognitive ability + context + complexity

cognitive development

growth of thinking/problem solving across lifespan

early=mastering physical world

later= abstract thought + social skills

Jean Piaget

children think qualitatively differently than adults

learning=building schemata (patterns of thought/behavior)

adaptation is used to adjust schemata to new information

schema

concept, behavior, or sequence of events

adaptation

adjusting schemata to new information

assimilation

fit new information into existing schema

ex: calling zebra a horse

accommodation

modify schema to include new information

ex: learning zebra is a new animal

stage 1: sensorimotor stage

0-2 years

learn through manipulating environment + sensory/motor coordination

circular reactions

circular reactions

repetitive nature

primary circular reactions

repeat body movements that originally occurred by chance

why? soothing

ex: thumb sucking

secondary circular reactions

actions on environment

why? to get a response

ex: throw toy

object permanence

objects still exist when hidden

ex: peek a boo

representational thought

form mental images of external objects/events

stage 2: pre operational stage

2-7 years

symbolic thinking and egocentrism

dont understand conservation

symbolic thinking

ability to pretend, play make believe, have imagination

egocentrism

refers to inability to imagine what another person may think or feel

conservation

struggle with it (may be due to centration)

physical amount stays the same despite shape change

ex: one big slice of pizza on one plate, two small slices of same amount on another

centration

focus on one feature only

stage 3: concrete operational stage

7-11 years

understand conservation + take others' perspectives

lose egocentrism

cannot think abstractly

can reason logically with concrete information

stage 4: formal operational stage

11+ years

logical thinking about abstract concepts (coincides with adolescence)

Piagets pendelum experiment:

-concrete: changed variables randomly

-formal: held variables constant (used scientific reasoning)

hypothetical reasoning

manipulating variables mentally

Lev Vygotsky

culture/internalization drives cognitive development

fluid intelligence

solving novel problems creatively

ex: figure out new video game

peaks early adulthood, declines with age

crystallized intelligence

solving problems using learned knowledge

ex: using equations in chemistry

peaks mid-adulthood, stays stable

activities of daily living

its decline is linked to decline in intellectual abilities in adulthood

there are protective factors that slow decline such as socialization

dementia

progressive loss of memory and impaired judgement and confusion

personality change

caused by Alzheimers/vascular dementia (caused by high bp and repeated microscopic clots in brain

delirium

sudden, reversible cognitive fluctuation due to medical causes

ex: electrolytes, infection, withdrawal, pain...

mental set

using the same approach for similar problems

functional fixedness

cannot see new uses for familiar objects

trial and error

try different solutions until one works

best when only a few options

algorithm

step by step method that always gives the right answer

deductive (top-down) reasoning

apply general rules to reach specific conclusion

ex: using logic rules to solve a puzzle

inductive (bottom-up) reasoning

build general conclusions from specific examples

ex: seeing the sun rise daily-> concluding it always rises in the east

heuristics

rule of thumb; mental shortcuts

not always accurate

availability heuristic

judge likelihood by how easily examples come to mind

es: thinking words that start with k are more common than words with k as the third letter (they are not)

representativeness heuristic

judge likelihood by matching to a prototype/stereotype

ex: flipping a coin 10 times->all heads-> people think tails is due to even it out or think that it will be heads again because of trend but still 50/50

base rate fallacy

ignore real statistics in favor of stereotypes

disconfirmation principle

a solution that fails testing should be rejected

confirmation bias

favor information that supports beliefs but ignores contradictions

contributes to overconfidence

overconfidence

thinking your decisions/knowledge are always correct

hindsight bias

"I knew it all along" after an event already happened

belief perseverance

clinging to beliefs despite clear opposing evidence

intuition

gut feeling without clear evidence

recognition-primed decision model

experts make fast decisions by unconsciously recognizing patterns from experience

emotion

feelings influence decisions (how you feel now or expect to feel later)

multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences

cultures tend to value linguistic and logical-math (tested on IQ)

inter and intra-personal

interpersonal intelligence

understanding others' moods/motivations

intrapersonal intelligence

awareness of your own emotions/strengths

analytical intelligence

reasoning, evaluating

Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory

creative intelligence

novel problem-solving

Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory

practical intelligence

everyday problem-solving

Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory

emotional intelligence

1. perceive/express emotions

2. understand/analyze emotions

3. regulate emotions

4. recognize how emotions shape thoughts/decisions

intelligence quotient (IQ)

Alfred Binet-> Stanford-Binet test

Spearman's g factor: a single general ability underlies performance across cognitive tasks

IQ formula: mental age/chronological age x 100

consciousness

awareness of yourself and the world around you

alertness

awake and able to think clearly

perceive->process->access->verbalize information

physiological arousal

increased HR

increased breathing

increased cortisol

EEG shows waking state

reticular formation

keeps cortex awake

prefrontal cortex: maintains alertness

damage=coma

electroencephalogram (EEG)

records electrical brain activity

beta waves

high frequency;

random firing

alert; concentrating

alpha waves

slower; more synchronized

realized; eyes closed but awake

stage 1 (NREM1)

theta waves

light sleep->occurs when dozing off

irregular waveform, slower frequency, higher voltage

stage 2 (NREM2)

theta waves + sleep spindles + K-complexes

deeper sleep than NREM1

sleep spindles

bursts of high-frequency waves

K complexes

single high-amplitude waves

stage 3 (NREM3)/slow wave sleep (SWS)

delta waves

hard to wake up

cognitive recovery

declarative memory consolidation

increased growth hormone release

EEG is progressively slower

delta waves

very low frequency, high voltage

non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM)

stages 1-3

progressively deeper sleep

theta -> delta waves

rest

cognitive recovery

declarative memory consolidation

rapid eye movement sleep (REM)

Beta waves mainly interspersed between NREM cycles

muscle paralysis prevents acting out dreams

dreaming most common here

procedural memory consolidation (skills, tasks)

paradoxical sleep

another word for REM because EEG, heart rate and breathing are similar to wakefulness

sleep cycle

full progression through NREM (SWS)-> REM

50 min children (more time in SWS)

90 min adults

circadian rhythm

24 hour internal sleep-wake cycle

influenced by light

melatonin

from pineal gland

decreased light->increased melatonin->sleepiness

pineal gland

derived from serotonin

cortisol

steroid hormone from adrenal cortex; promotes wakefulness

increased light->hypothalamus releases CRF->pituitary releases ACTH->adrenal cortex releases cortisol

adrenal cortex

produces cortisol

corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)

released when light increases

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

released by CRF from anterior pituitary

stimulates release of cortisol

activation-synthesis theory

dreams=random brain activation stitched into a story

problem solving dream theory

dreams let you approach problems differently

cognitive process dream theory

dreams=stream of consciousness in sleep

rapid shift and change

neurocognitive models of dreaming

link dream experience to measurable brain activity

dyssomnias

problems falling/staying asleep

insomnia

narcolepsy

sleep apnea

mostly occur in NREM

parasomnias

abnormal behaviors during sleep

night terrors

sleepwalking(somnambulism)

mostly occur in NREM

insomnia

trouble falling/staying asleep

possible causes: anxiety, depression, meds, sleep disruption

narcolepsy

lack of voluntary control over onset of sleep

cataplexy

sleep paralysis

hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations

cataplexy

loss of muscle control and intrusion of REM during waking hours

emotional trigger

sleep paralysis

awake but cannot move

hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations

hallucinations while falling asleep/waking

sleep apnea

stop breathing during sleep

obstructive: physical block in airway

central: brain fails to signal breathing

night terrors

intense anxiety during SWS

increase heart rate, fast breathing, no memory after

sleepwalking or somnambulism

complex behaviors (eat, walk, drive, sex) during SWS

no recall

sleep deprivation

irritability

low performance

slow reflexes

severe=possible psychosis

REM rebound

sleep deprived ->earlier onset and longer REM sleep

hypnosis

highly suggestible state

normal control intact

hypnotic induction

relax and increase focus

follow suggestions

meditation

mind quieting (spiritual or stress)

lowers HR and BP

EEG remembers stage 1 sleep (theta and slow alpha)

depressants

decreased nervous system activity -> relaxation

alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines

alcohol

increased GABA activity->brain inhibition->decreased arousal

increased dopamine->mild euphoria

disinhibition

impaired reasoning/motor skills

fatigue