OCR A Level Religious Studies: Conscience

ratio

the word used by Aquinas to describe reason, something which is placed in every person as a result of their being created in the image of God

synderesis

to follow good and avoid evil, the rule that all precepts follow

Id

the part of the mind that has intrinsic impulses that seek satisfaction in pleasure

super-ego

the part of the mind that contradicts the id and uses interlaced ideals from parents and society to make the ego behave more morally

ego

the meditation between the id and super-ego

conscientia

the name Aquinas gives to the process whereby a persons reason makes moral judgements

vincible ignorance

how Aquinas describes a lack of knowledge for which a person is responsible, and can be blamed

invincible ignorance

how Aquinas describes a lack of knowledge for which a person is not responsible, and cannot be blamed

psychosexual development

early childhood awareness of libido

libido

sexual desire

Aquinas

- conscience can be mistaken: apparent goods followed not real goods

- conscience fallible (not perfect)

- but conscience can be mistaken through your own fault or not

- "if a mistaken reason bids a man to sleep with another man's wife, to do this will be evil based on ignorance of divine law he ought to know; but if the misjudgement is occasioned by thinking the woman really is his own wife and she wants him, then his will is free from fault"

ratio

- conscience linked with reason

- distinguishes us from other animals

- only humans deliberate over moral matters, so a fundamental part of how humans were created (imago dei), didn't loose this after fall

- act of working things out (using nml and primary precepts)

ratio

- morality not just following the laws or what is culturally, socially or politically 'normal' (similar to 'Jesus the rebel' idea)

- reaches beyond what is socially acceptable to a higher morality

syneresis

- process of conscience, where one leans towards goodness (guided by ratio/ reason) and away from evil and guilty pleasures

- within everyone

- universal sense of right and wrong (innate)

- dependent on ratio; if a person's reasoning is faulty, then their conscience will be faulty too

conscientia

- conscience in action

- general principle grasped by syneresis, examine action and conclude of right or wrong

- going against conscience wrong: shouldn't do it if applying this to a acton

- can be wrong if our conscience faulty; we can lessen this if we develop virtues, especially practical wisdom

ignorance

- you must follow your ratio and conscience at all times, even if it leads to a wrong choice.

- by using your ratio, inline with synderesis: whatever it is directing you towards is right.

- Aquinas did recognise mistakes can be made, as sometimes knowledge is incorrect e.g. education

- if a mistake based on the 'right' ignorance, you are amorally blameless

vincible ignorance

- lack of knowledge for which a person can be held responsible e.g. you should have known better

- not an excuse

- morally culpable for acts

invincible ignorance

- lack of knowledge which a person isn't responsible for

- one acts in the best of their knowledge, with reasonably informed information but makes a mistake

- Aquinas believed God wouldn't condemn such an act

Aquinas strengths

- highly influential view supported by Catholic Church; "[conscience] formulates its judgements according to reason"

- explains why conscience can sometimes be incorrect: wrong use of reason - following apparent goods

- clear authority/ guidance - supported by Bible

- everyone experiences reason

- includes knowledge and reasoning so every religion can apply it

Aquinas weaknesses

- some acts can never be morally blameless: acts may still break the law and deserve punishment regardless of right intention/ following conscience.

- assumes good and evil same for everyone

- can't be used by atheists

- assumes no emotion expressed

- are humans really that rational?

- can conscience and reason conflict? - which do you follow?

Aquinas weaknesses

- if synderesis is infallible then all humans would have same moral principles, but what one finds permissible, others finds forbidden e.g. abortion

- however, Aquinas argued synderesis is very general (do good and avoid evil)

Freud

- theory of mind: psychoanalysis

- wrote about conscience in his books: Outline of Psychoanalysis and The Ego and the Id

Freud

- everyone goes through 5 psychosexual stages:

oral (0-1), anal (1-3), phallic (3-5/6 - crucial for development of superego), latency (5/6- puberty), genital (puberty-maturity)

- each associated with a particular part of the body, because libido focuses on that part of the body as its source of pleasure, frustration or both

id

- unconscious part of the mind present from birth

- driven by pleasure e.g. libido

- central component of personality

- impulsive and seeks immediate gratification from instincts, despite consequences

- remains infantile throughout life

- not affected by experience, logic

ego

- mediates desires between unrealistic id and external world: reality principle

- not socially acceptable to seek immediate gratification for all desires, so children learn to keep them in check

- develops into ways to satisfy desires that are more acceptable

- can be weak and fail compared to id, creating anxiety

ego example

- horse (id) and rider (ego)

- good conscience = effective operation of ego over id, where desires are achieved (winning) whilst avoiding punishment from social authorities (loosing/ being injured)

superego

- controls ids desires and persuades ego to follow norms

- stores all internalised moral standards of right/ wrong acquired from parents and society, know what is rewarded/ punished

- conscience: guilt

- ideal self: how you ought to be

- behaviour falling short or ideal self produces guilt

- last part of human psyche to develop (around 5)

superego example

- repression of shame can cause pathological behaviour

- e.g. obsessive washing by Lady Macbeth: guilty reaction to Duncan's murder., drives her mad even though she encouraged Macbeth to kill him

- depending on upbringing, guilt irrational, to do with our sexuality e.g. have no control

Freud: strengths

- founder of psychoanalysis - still used today

- fundamental in the development of dreams, mind and conscious

- clear parents/ environment affect morals

- childhood important in moral development

- explains why all morals are so different because they are affected over time/ cultures/ society/ parents

Freud: weaknesses

- unethical case studies e.g. Little Hans

- what about children from single parent/ modern families - implies they are immoral = illogical

- implies little freewill over morals if inbuilt by parents

- should parents be held responsible if children are immoral/ break the law?

- ignores later life experiences

- is conscience unconscious - do we not have more control over free will?

guilt

- internal conflict in mind, struggle between what you desire and what you feel/ should or should not do

- Freud; leads people to doing bad things, so not a consequence of wrongdoing but a cause of future wrongdoings

- Aquinas: God's grace banishes guilt from a person; good conscience

fletcher

- conscience a verb rather than a noun: weighing of the possible decision before it is taken to produce most loving outcome

- not reliable rules telling you what to do

- e.g. abortion not 'right' or 'wrong'; depends on

consequences: we use

conscience to weigh up how practical it is

in that situation, in producing the most loving outcome

augustine

- conscience voice of God speaks to us

- "see God as your witness"

- people able to sense right/ wrong because God reveals it to us personally

- however, this is corrupt by fall as it can be wrong, change and differ

butler

- conscience essential part of being human, separates us from animals

- like Aquinas: it is what we use to judge an action good or bad

- automatic/ spontaneous

- has final say in moral choices

- God-given guide to right conduct

- should always be followed

- "our natural guide, the guide assigned to us by the Author of our nature"

newman

- we know what is right and wrong through sense feelings of guilt and responsibility rather than through use of reason/ conditioning

- conscience the 'voice of the lawgiver', and messenger from God

piaget

- most comprehensive theory of intellectual (cognitive) development

- proposed stages of childhood

- heteronomous morality (5-9) child looks beyond self for moral authority: must be obeyed, or immoral acts punished

- autonomous morality(10+): personal code of conduct develops based on perceptions and punishments in proportion with actions

- most adults use mixture of 2

fromm

- conscience influenced by external authority: parents, church leaders e.g.

- rules internalised by person

- disobedience causes guilt, weakens our power, makes us submissive to authority: authoritarian conscience. e.g. Nazi Government

- later developed the humanistic (healthier) approach: assesses and evaluates our behaviour

- conscience our real self and leads us to reach our full potential

the Bible

- OT doesn't use the word conscience, but says the true heart interiorises divine law

- "God blesses those whose hearts are pure, for they will see God" Matthew 5:8

Paul

- speaks in Greek, but translated to conscience and heart

- describes human ability to know and choose good

- everyone know what is right and wrong; as written in our hearts

- conscience universal knowledge of God's guiding law

- can be corrupted, but through Grace and Holy Spirt we can 'put on the mind of Christ'