Resource Security

What are resources?

materials or substances occuring in nature which can be exploited for economic gain e.g. fossil fuels

What is resource security?

• can be national or global; the ability to safeguard a reliable and sustainable flow of resources to maintain the living standard and ensure economic development

What are stock resources?

• non-renewable and take millions of years to form

• ‘fixed’ and finite

• e.g. gas and oil

What are flow resources?

• renewable

• natural supply that can be replenished in short time span e.g. wind and solar

What are critical flow resources?

• renewable resources that require careful human management

What are non-renewable energy resources?

• energy resources that build up over time

• cannot be used without depleting the stock

What are renewable energy resources?

• yield a continuous flow

• consumed without endangering future consumption

What resource management?

involves controlling the exploitation of resources in relation to the associated economic and environmental costs

for sustainable development

Is water renewable or nonrenewable?

• finite

• only 1% available for human use

• need to consider what exploitation may do

• in North America and Asia depletion is the worst - abstraction exceeds recharge

What is stock resource evaluation?

• stock resources (mainly mineral deposits) = valuable

• companies go through an evaluation to decide if a resource is economically viable

What is a resource?

• the entire material (including parts not economically viable to extract)

What is a reserve?

• the amount of the resource that is economically viable to extract

• improved technology will convert more resources into reserves

What is the McKelvey box?

• the big box is the entire resource

• the smaller box is the reserve within the resource - determined by economic recoverability, based on access and cost

What is geological certainty?

• the quantity of the resource that has been sourced

• the quality of the resource in the reserve

• the physical location (accessibility, depth)

What is profitability/economic viability?

• estimates the amount of money received from the deposit vs the cost of extraction

• can vary widely in upgrades in technology, shifts in world prices and levels of competition for that resource

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What are the different types of reserves and resources?

• measured reserves

• indicated reserves

• inferred resources

• possible resources

What are measured reserves?

• the quality and density of the reserves characteristics are so well established you could estimate with confidence

• detailed sampling

• economically viable

What are indicated reserves?

• confidence is sufficient to allow further evaluation into the economic viability of the deposit

• inspection sites

What are inferred resources?

• limited geographical samples conducted, uncertainty in the quality/quantity of the resource

• limited geographical sampling

What are possible resources?

• resources that are thought to exist but no sampling has happened and it is thought not to be economically viable

  • hypothetical resources: undiscovered materials that are reasonable expected to exist in known mining regions

  • speculative resources: undiscovered materials that may occur where no previous discoveries have been made

What are physical risks to resources?

consider the accessibility of resources available in an area

• physical location

• technology available to extract

• the quality and quantity of resource

What are geopolitical risks?

consider the barriers provided by tensions between nation states

• possibility of conflict, war or political tension

• concentration of production in small number of countries

• TNCs influencing government decisions

• confidence of any individual country was in trading with producers also will seek to exert market power

What are proven/recoverable reserves?

• top of the scale, likely to be extracted for commercial use due to economic viability

What are probable/possible reserves?

• thought to exist because of the geological terrain but no exploration

What might prompt the exploration of certain resources?

• the price/value increasing = more viable - makes time and cost consumption worth it

What are the key components of the mineral resource development cycle?

• available land or sea

• exploration

• environmental assessment and approval

• construction

• operation

• closure

• reclamation

• monitoring

What are the key components of the mineral resource development cycle? What does exploration include?

• using satellite imagery

• geographical surveys

• gather field data before assessing extent and quality of the reserve

What are the key components of the mineral resource development cycle? What does evaluation/assessment include?

• determining viability

• assess environmental before extraction

What are the key components of the mineral resource development cycle? What does construction include?

• building infrastructure to access resources

• e.g. road building, pipelines

What are the key components of the mineral resource development cycle? What does operation include?

• exploiting the resource

• until all viable reserves are exploited

• duration depends

What are the key components of the mineral resource development cycle? What does closure include?

• does not always mean all reserves have been recovered

• some resources like oil will have tertiary extractions - using steam or detergent solutions to force it to surface

How is the resource development cycle different in developed countries to developing countries?

• environmental laws are more strict in developed = environmental management is essential

• developing countries = less care for the environment

What are the key parts of Friedman’s core-periphery model?

• core, upward transitional, downward transitional, resource frontier

the key parts of Friedman’s core-periphery model? (Core)?

• refers to the area that attracts wealth and investment because of it’s advantageous location and existing resources

the key parts of Friedman’s core-periphery model? (the upward transitional area)?

• development spreads from the core to surrounding areas

• it has natural resources

• rising agriculture

the key parts of Friedman’s core-periphery model? (periphery and downward transitional area)?

• largely undeveloped

• fails to attract investment and growth

• lags behind standards of living

• but there is a possibility of undiscovered resources existing - would prompt investment in area

the key parts of Friedman’s core-periphery model? (Resource frontier)?

• an area with natural investment into the area, creating jobs directly/indirectly related to the development

• social conditions may be poorly developed but economic growth = rapid growth and influx of workers

• variety of scales

• e.g. The Arctic, Alaska + transalaskan pipeline

What US state in the Arctic has been exploited for oil?

• Alaska

• has not been exploited to a large extent because of little infrastructure, challenging environment)

• some exploitation has slowed because extracting oil was not economically viable

What is conventional oil and gas?

• refers to petroleum, oil and natural gas that is extracted from the ground by conventional methods

What are unconventional reserves?

• hydrocarbon reservoirs that have low permeability and porosity

• require enhanced recovery techniques e.g. fracking

What is the resource peak?

• the amount of time of the maximum rates of production of a resource (the most amount we can produce)

• peak oil was an idea from Hubbert - oil use follows a bell-shaped curve

What are the different stages of Hubbert’s peak resource curve?

1. production increases as investment increases + most easily accessible parts of reserve are extracted

2. resource peak - maximum amount of resource is extracted each day (normally when half the resource is used)

3. production declines - only hard to access part left

4. resource runs out or is not economically viable to extract

When will we/did we hit peak fossil fuel use?

• International Energy Agency’s (IEA) said that we would peak in 2030

• Association for the study of peak oil and gas suggests we hit peak conventional oil in 2005 (OPEC’s production has been flat every since)

What is sustainable resource development?

• exploiting resources of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

What problems does our current resource use present?

• the chances of future generations and LICs to have a fair share in resources

• environmental impacts

What is resource depletion?

• the consumption of a resource faster than it can be replenished

• can be prevented by supply increase and demand decrease

What are different methods of supply side management?

• increasing exploration efforts for existing non-renewable resources

• increasing research efforts to develop

  • more sustainable alternative/substitute resources

  • new technologies that are more sustainable

What are different methods of demand side management?

• involves reducing consumption of resources individually and at geographic scale

• changing individual behaviour and lifestyle to discourage wasteful and extravagant use of resources

• developing technology to make more efficient resources

• recycling after use

• reducing population growth = less pressure on resources

• regulatory controls like agenda 21

How can we reduce the environmental impact of resource development?

• technological advances (catalytic converters)

• CCS technology

Have renewable energy resources helped sustainable resource development?

• yes - less pressure but only 18% of global energy mix

• not being introduced at a significant enough rate

What is an environmental impact assessment?

• EIA

• a process used to identify the environmental consequences of a proposed project

• need to be considered in relation to socio-economic and human health impacts

• specialist environmental consultants

What is an example of an EIA?

• Atkins (London based firm)

• prepared EIAs for water and energy infrastructure around the world

  • assess impact of changing land on environment

  • quantifies potential environmental impacts and attempts - environment has equal footing with economy

  • suggests modifications or alternatives to projects

What are the different stages of EIAs? (stages 1 and 2)

1. outline proposal development: description of site, construction and operation plans, sources of disturbance

2. existing environmental conditions surveyed: identifies all features of environment that will be affected by the project

What are the different stages of EIAs? (3 and 4)

3. assessment of all environmental impacts: all significant impacts identified

4. modifications that mitigate impacts

What are the different stages of EIAs? (5 and 6)

5. environmental statement published: a non-technical summary outlining environmental impacts - cost-benefit analysis

6. decision made by authority: done after consideration

EIA in relation to resource development projects (open-pit mine)?

would consider range of impacts like:

• aesthetic problems: degradation of landscape

• air pollution: dust and particle matter

• noise pollution: from heavy vehicles

• water pollution

• toxic waste: prevention of tailings escaping into water

• dereliction (abandonment of mine and area)

Why will water come under increasing pressure in the future?

• population growth (expected to be just under 10 billion by 2050)

• water needed for drinking, irrigation, maintaining health and preventing disease

• increase in waste water

what three aspects will lead to an increase in demand for water?

• population increase, industrialisation, urbanisation

what is potable water?

• water that is suitable for drinking

what is water stress?

• occurs when the demand of water exceeds the amount of water available

What is water surplus?

• where there is more than sufficient water available to meet human needs

What % of the population do not have access to a basic drinking water service?

10%

How many people use a water source contaminated with faeces and what does this cause?

• 2 billion

• 485,000 diarrheaol deaths

What are the key issues concerning water security?

• the variable access to clean, safe, potable drinking water

• the need to balance and conserve water supplies

• improving the supply and quality of drinking water

• reducing tensions and conflict caused by access to water supplies

• improving trans-boundary co-operation

• water stress

What is the UN sustainable development goal involving clean water?

• achieve ‘clean, accessible water for all’ parts of the world

• now 90% of population have access to improved drinking water sources

What is the accessibility of water like globally?

• countries experiencing rapid population growth (Sub-saharan africa) have water shortages due to increased demand for irrigation, drinking, livestock, hygiene etc

• developed countries like NA and Canada have more access to water

• regions experiencing physical shortages of water (North Africa and Middle East) = worsened by climate change

What do shortages in water result in?

• droughts = crops killed = livestock killed = people

• increase in water-borne diseases like cholera

• barriers to industrial development

• over-exploitation of water resources

How is water availability impacted by physical factors?

• supply determined by latitude, wind direction and proximity to coasts = influences rainfall

How is water availability impacted by human factors?

• dependent on human intervention like treating water to provide improved drinking water through pipes

• overuse

What are areas of water surplus caused by?

• climates giving regular plentiful rainfall: good run off and stores in aquifers and low evaporation

• effective water treatment and management: protects against water pollution and ensures premium water quality

• low water-usage characteristics: e.g. low population or efficient water usage

Where are countries with water surplus?

• temperate or tropical areas

• South America, North America, North Europe, South East Asia and Oceania

• not always a result of high rainfall e.g. USA has low rainfall but water surplus

• still regions of water deficit

Where are areas of water deficit located?

• Middle East, North Africa (sahel region), central asia

• sub-saharan africa has largest number of water-stressed regions

• arid regions where resources cannot meet demands

What are the anomalies to water security and scarcity?

• water security: Austrailia manages water well even during the drought from 1997-2009

• water scarcity: many countries have adequate natural water supply but cannot afford to abstract, transport or treat it e.g. Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia

What has economic water scarcity been caused by and how has it been targeted?

• lack of investment and good governance

• MDG goal 7: wanted to halve number of people without access to safe drinking water - met five years ahead of schedule in 2010

What are patterns in water demand?

• North America and West and Central Asia have highest per capita water withdrawl globally

• due to agriculture, irrigation, porduction of cotton and cereal (Asia), industry, appliances (e.g. dishwashers and high personal hygiene levels - mainly USA)

• sub-Saharan Africa has lowest per capita withdrawal because of unreliable rainfall and lacking infrastructure - use primarly for irrigation

What is ‘hydropolitics’?

• negotiations that focus on resolving conflicts over water

• as water becomes scarce, tensions intensify - may become privatised and sold as a commodity

how many transboundary water sources are there?

• 276 river basins are transboundary (shared by two or more countries) - causes tensions

• 200 of these have been over-abstracted by one country

• if water is polluted, diverted or blocked by one country it can affect chances of neighbouring countries

How many potential conflicts over water has the UN identified?

60 - these problems arise when countries make development plans on their own without consulting those who share their water resources

what is an example of conflict over water?

• china controls the Tibetan Plateua known as the ‘Water tower of asia’

• source of 10 asian river systems

• china built HEP dams without agreemnt sform countries downstream

What are examples of international agreements on water sharing (Nile)?

• Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) formed to manage Nile to achieve sustainable socio-economic development

• disagreement over 5 nations wanting a larger share and Sudan and Egypt disagreeing

• disagreement over Ethiopia’s Great Ethiopian Renaissance Dam

• disagreements all resolved

What are examples of local agreements on water sharing (Indus River Commision)?

• successful agreement between India and Pakistan to manage Indus - equally divided

• has survived two wards between the two countries, although a dam has been built by India

What are examples of local agreements on water sharing (Mekong Agreement)?

• Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam agree to share water

• Laos began construction of the Don Sahong Dam - threatens Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam’s water

• agreed that Dam could be built but Cambodia recieved some of the energy

What is water security?

• the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequete quantities

Why do we need water security?

for:

• sustainable livelihoods

• human well-being and socio-economic development

• ensuring protection against water-borne pollution and water-related disasters

• preserving ecosystems

What are different sources of water?

• surface water e.g. rivers and reservoirs

• underground stores e.g. groundwater

• seawater e.g. after desalination

What are the three major uses of water?

• agricultural use: mainly irrigation of crops, livestock

• industrial/commercial use: e.g. coolant in electricity generation, heating, steam turbines

• domestic/household use: public/municipal water supply for drinking, personal hygiene, sanitation

What are the global percentages of the three main uses of water?

• agriculture = 69%

• industry = 19%

• domestic = 12%

  • but this varies in different parts of the world

How does the use of the three main water resources vary in the world?

• less developed countries use more water for agriculture than wealthier temperate countries (who have lots of rainfall and low evaporation) - less irrigation needed in temperate HICs

• HICs = more affluence = higher proportion in domestic and industrial sectors

What does water stress result from?

• an imbalance between water use and water resources available = lack of water is major constraint to human activity

• less than 1,700m³ per person per year

Water stress causes a deterioration of freshwater supplies in terms of:

• quantity = over-abstraction

• quality = organic pollution or eutrophication or saltwater incursion

What are the requirements for ensuring reliable sources of surface water and aquifers?

• reliable rainfall

• large bodies of surface fresh water

• low evaporation rates to reduce surface losses

• suitable geological structures that provide for groundwater aquifers

What factors need to be considered when abstracting from rivers?

• river discharge - annual flow must be adequate

• variations in flow overtime

• water quality - level of contamination

• other uses of river e.g. transport and wildlife

What are the negative impacts of over-abstraction of rivers and lakes?

• reduced volume of water concentrates pollutants

• decreased velocity and discharge = increases sediment downstream

• reduced downstream flooding = affects soil quality and may kill aquatic life (destroyed habitats)

What are reservoirs?

• an artificial lake where water is stored

How are reservoirs created?

• by flooding valley floors; a dam is built across river valley to store water behind it

Why are reservoirs controversial?

• conflict with other uses in valley e.g. settlement, food production

• disruption to hydrological cycle and impacts whole river system

What are physical characteristics that are good for reservoir location?

• topography: long narrow valley with steep sides = large volume

• geology = impermeable rock so no water is lost to infiltration

• catchment area = large area to increase water volume

• climate: sustainable water supply (frequent, reliable precipitation)

What are benefits of reservoirs?

• prevents flooding

• natural stored water supply

• multiple purposes like HEP and fishing