dada unit 1 lol

how does the structure of scientific papers correspond to different steps on the scientific method

the introduction explains the theory and hypothesis the method explains how the study was done , the results show the data that was collected and the conclusion explains what the result mean

why should we be willing to examine our own assumptions and biases

our assumptions and biases can effect the way we understand information and make decisions so examining them can help us think more objectivly

what is naive realism

the belief that we see the world objectively and that the way we see things is the way they acually are

what is confirmation bias

when we are more likely to accept things that supports what we believe and question information that goes against our beliefs

why do you think confirmation is used to explain confirmation bias

because confirmation means confirming something so we tend to accept things that confirm beliefs we already have

why should you put too much trust in one study

one study can have limitations or results that happened by chance so its better to look at multiple studies before making a conclusion

whats meta analysis

a meta analysis combines results of multiple studies on the same topic to look at the overall pattern of results

process of encoding

encoding is the process of getting information to our memory system our brains take in information,organize it and connect it to information we already know

why is information remembered better when it is encoded semantically than when it is coded visually or acoustically

semantic encoding focuses on the meaning of information when we think about what something actually means we process it deeply and make more connections to information we already know making it easier to memorize

why do you think self reference effect helps you remember things

self reference effect helps because connecting information to something you already know makes it more meaningful and personal and it creates more connections that help remember information better

term storage mean as applied to memory

storage is keeping encoded information in memory so that it can be used later

what is sensory memory

sensory memory is the brief storage of information that we receive through our senses such as what see see or hear

short term memory

a temporary memory system that holds small amount of information for a short period of time

how does information get from your sensory memory to short term memory

information moves from sensory memory to short term memory when we pay attention to it

how long does short term memory typically preserve information

short term memory keeps information for about 15-30 seconds unless we do someting to keep it longer

what is rehearsal

rehearsal is consciously repeating information that you want to remember

what is long term memory

long term memory is the continuous storage of information over long periods of time and has a very large storage capacity

how does spreading activation help you remember things

when one concept in memeory is activated , related concepts can also become activated making it easier to remember information that is connected to what you are already thinking about

what does the term retrieval mean as applied to memory

retrieval is getting information that has been stored in memory and bringing it back into your awareness

why do you think elaborative rehearsal helps you rememeber things

because instead of just repeating information you think about what it means and connect it to things you already know making information more meaningful and easier to remeber later

what did the sperling expirement show

shows us that we take in more visual information that we can actually report and that information stays in our sensory memory for only a short time before it fades

explain how the length of echoic memory can create the what ? oh! phenomenon

echoic memeory hold sound for a few seconds sometimes we say oh right after someone says something to us but a second later we realize what they said because the sound is still in our memory

how does previewing information help you remember that information better after you have fully read it or listened

previewing gives you an indea on what the information is before you fully learn it and makes it easier to organize the new information and connect details together

why does elaborative interrogation help you remember information better than simply reading it over again

elaborative interrogation helps you think more deeply about the information and aksing why it is true this helps you understand it instead of memorizing it

why do you think elaborative and interrogation were chosen to name elaborative interrogation

interrogation fits because you are questioning the information and elaborative fits becuase you are adding more meaning and making connections to what you already know

why do practice tests help better that just reading information again

practice tests help you pull the information from memory the more you practice recallin it the easier it becomes to remember later

what is distributed practice

distributed practice means spreading your studying out over time instead of trying to learn everything in one long study session

why do you think we tend to believe that the best time to study is right before the test

studying right beofre a test makes information feel fresh so it seems like we know it better and it makes cramming feel more effective than it really is

what is neutral stimulus

a neutral stimulus is something that does not naturally cause a certian response before conditioning happens

what is an unconditioned stimulus

an unconditioned stimulus is something that naturally causes a response without needing to be learned

what is an unconditioned response

a natural and automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

what is a conditioned response

a conditioned response is a learned response happens after a conditioned stimulus is presented

what is extinction in the context of classical conditioning

extinction happens when the conditioned stimulus keeps being presented without the unconditioned stimulus so the conditioned response starts to wekaen or dissappear

what is the difference between classical and operant conditioning

classical conditioning is learning an association between stimuli while operant conditioning is learning that a behavior leads to certain consequences

what is positive reinforcement

positive reinforcement is adding something desireable to increase a behavior

what is negative reinforcement

negative reinforcement is removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior

what is positive punishmnet

adds something unpleasant to decrease a behavior

what is negative punishment

taking something desireable away to decrease a behavior

what does unconditioned mean in unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response

unconditioned means something thats not learned and the stimulus naturally causes a response and the response happens automatically without having to learn it

explain conditioned for conditioned stimulus and conditioned response

conditioned means learning something by association , a stimulus starts causing a response when its been associated with something else

what is stimulus generalization

when things are similar to the conditioned stimulus cause the conditioned response

explain why extinction cannot happen unless you encounter the conditioned stimulus

extinction cannot happen unless you encounter the conditioned stimulus because you need to experience the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus to learn that their is no longer an association but if you avoid it their is no association so nothing gets weakened

explain the word positive means in positive reinforcement and positive punishment

positive means something that is being added

   Explain what the word “negative” means in the terms negative reinforcement and negative punishment. reinforcement and negative punishment

negative means something is being taken away or removed

how does timing of a consequene influence it

a consequence has a stronger effect on behavior when it happens right after if it happens later it is harder to connect the consequence to the behavior that caused it

how can positive punishment and negative reinforcement discourgae us from doing things that will benefit us in the long run

something that is good for us in the long run can still feel uncomfortable in the moment and that discomfort can punish behavior and make us less likely to do it again and avoiding it can also make the uncomfortable feeling go away which negatively reinforces avoidance

how can working in places with minimal distractions help you use your time more effectively

working somwhere with few distractions can help you stay focused instead of constantly stoppping and having to get focused again

why is it often important to reward yourself after youve done something that is hard for yourself to do

rewarding yourself gives you positive reinforcement and it makes you more likely to do the difficult thing again because you start connecting the behavior with something rewarding aftwards

why do you think we tend to believe that something is bad if it makes us upset

Being upset is uncomfortable, so we naturally want to avoid things that make us feel that way. Because of this, we can start thinking something is bad just because it makes us upset, even if it could actually be helpful for us.

What is emotional support?

Emotional support is giving someone comfort, empathy, encouragement, or reassurance when they are going through something.

What is informational support?

Informational support is giving someone useful information, advice, or guidance that can help them deal with a problem or situation.

What is instrumental support?

Instrumental support is directly helping someone with something they need to get done. This could be doing a task for them, giving them a ride, or helping them with something that makes their situation easier

What is physical affection support?

Physical affection support is using positive physical touch, like giving someone a hug, to provide comfort and make them feel supported.

Why is it important to learn the other person’s support preferences when you are trying to be supportive?

People do not all want to be supported in the same way. Something that makes one person feel better might not help another person, so knowing what type of support they actually want makes the support more helpful.

What are the benefits to nonverbally acknowledging the person you are listening to?

Nonverbally acknowledging someone, like making eye contact, nodding, or reacting to what they are saying, shows that you are paying attention and interested in what they are telling you. It can also make them feel heard and more comfortable continuing to talk.

Why is it important to give the person you are listening to your undivided attention?

Giving someone your undivided attention shows them that what they are saying matters to you. If you are distracted or doing other things while they are talking, they may feel like you are not actually listening or do not care about what they are saying.

What are the benefits of making reflective statements when you are listening to someone?

Reflective statements show the person that you understand what they are saying and how they are feeling. They also give the person a chance to clarify something if you misunderstood them.

 What are the benefits of asking follow-up questions of the person you are listening to?

Follow-up questions show that you are interested and actually listening. They also help you understand the situation better and encourage the person to explain more about what they are thinking or feeling.

Why is it important to keep the focus on the person you are listening to?

The point of listening is to support the other person, so the conversation should stay focused on their experience. If you immediately start talking about yourself or your own experiences, it can make the person feel like their situation is being ignored or compared to yours.

 How did participants who went through the Trier Social Stress Test with a friend respond differently than those who went through it alone?

Participants who went through the Trier Social Stress Test with a friend had a lower stress response than people who went through it alone. Having social support from a friend helped reduce their response to the stressful situation.

What are some of the health benefits to having good social relationships?

People with more and better social relationships tend to have lower blood pressure, better immune systems, and better mental health.

What is oxytocin?

Oxytocin is a hormone that is released during things like breastfeeding, sex, and positive physical touch. It is connected to social bonding and positive social interactions.

How might oxytocin be involved in the health benefits of social support?

Social support may increase oxytocin, and increased oxytocin may help lower cortisol, which is a stress hormone. Lower cortisol could be one reason why having good social support is connected to better health.

 Why is it important to share information about yourself in your social relationships?

Sharing information about yourself, or self-disclosure, helps other people get to know you and helps build closer and more meaningful relationships. Without sharing things about yourself, it is harder for a relationship to become deeper.

 Why is reciprocity important in a social relationship?

Reciprocity is important because relationships need some give and take from both people. Both people should be putting effort into the relationship and supporting each other instead of the relationship being completely one-sided.

Explain two-factor learning.

Two-factor learning involves both classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning can cause something to become associated with fear or distress. Then operant conditioning can keep that fear going because avoiding the thing makes the distress go away, which negatively reinforces the avoidance.

How can two-factor learning following a distressing experience reduce the likelihood of extinguishing a conditioned response?

After a distressing experience, something connected to it can become a conditioned stimulus that causes fear. If you avoid that stimulus, your fear goes down, which reinforces the avoidance. Since you keep avoiding it, you do not experience the conditioned stimulus without something bad happening, so extinction is less likely to happen.

What does it mean to say that human beings are antifragile?

It means that humans can sometimes grow and become stronger from manageable stress and challenges. Instead of only recovering from difficult experiences, we can also learn from them and become better at handling similar situations later.

How does the text define stress?

Stress is the process of how a person perceives and responds to events that they see as overwhelming or threatening to their well-being.

What is the difference between stress and a stressor?

A stressor is the event or situation that could be demanding or threatening. Stress is the process of how a person views and responds to that stressor.

What are the physiological changes associated with the fight-or-flight response?

The pupils dilate, heart rate increases, breathing gets faster, bronchial tubes dilate, muscles tense, and sweating increases. The body also releases hormones like epinephrine and norepinephrine to prepare the person to fight or escape the threat.

What are the three parts of the body involved in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis?

The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands.

What is cortisol?

Cortisol is a stress hormone released by the adrenal glands. It helps give the body extra energy when we first experience a stressor and prepares us to respond to it.

What are some negative effects of prolonged activation of the stress response?

Prolonged stress can weaken the immune system and increase the risk of illness and disease. Long-term high levels of cortisol can also contribute to problems like depression and cardiovascular disease.

What are the steps in problem-focused coping?

Problem-focused coping means directly working on the problem that is causing the stress. It involves identifying the problem, coming up with possible solutions, choosing a solution, and then taking action to deal with the problem.

What is social support?

Social support is the help, comfort, advice, and care that we receive from other people, such as friends, family, coworkers, or other people we are close to.

What are some of the negative effects of low social support?

Low social support can make it harder to deal with stress and is connected with worse physical and mental health. People with less social support can also be more vulnerable to things like depression and illness.

Why may exercise protect people from some of the negative effects of stress?

Exercise can help the body handle stress better and improve both physical and mental health. It can improve mood and help protect the body from some of the harmful effects of long-term stress.

What bodily processes are upregulated by the fight or flight response?

Blood sugar rises, heart rate increases, breathing rate increases, and more resources are sent to your extremities, like your arms and legs.

Why are these bodily processes upregulated by the fight or flight response?

These processes increase because your body is preparing to deal with a threat. More blood sugar gives you quick energy, and a faster heart and breathing rate help get oxygen and energy to your muscles so you can fight or get away.

What bodily processes are downregulated by the fight or flight response?

The immune system, digestion, and reproduction are downregulated.

Why are these bodily processes downregulated?

These processes are not as important when you are dealing with an immediate threat, so your body puts more of its energy and resources toward the things you need to survive in that moment.

How are the things that stress us out as humans different from the things that historically stressed out our mammalian ancestors?

Our ancestors were usually stressed by immediate physical threats, while humans can be stressed by things like school, work, relationships, money, or even just thinking about something that might happen. The stressors are different, but our bodies still use the same stress response.

How can stress affect your sleep?

Prolonged stress can make it harder to sleep normally. You might have trouble falling asleep, staying asleep, or getting good quality sleep because your body is staying more activated.

How can prolonged stress affect your metabolism?

Prolonged stress can mess with your normal metabolism because the stress response changes how your body uses and stores energy, including keeping more glucose available in your blood.

How can prolonged stress affect your susceptibility to disease?

Prolonged stress can make you more likely to get sick because the stress response downregulates your immune system. If this keeps happening for a long time, your body may not be able to fight off illnesses as well.

How can prolonged stress affect your digestive functioning?

Prolonged stress can cause digestive problems because digestion is downregulated during the stress response. If you are stressed for a long time, your normal digestive functioning can stay disrupted.

. How can prolonged stress affect your cardiovascular health?

can put extra strain on your cardiovascular system because your heart rate increases during the stress response. If this keeps happening over time, it can negatively affect your cardiovascular health.

How can prolonged stress affect your sex drive?

Prolonged stress can lower your sex drive because reproduction is one of the processes that gets downregulated during the stress response.

Describe each of the four steps to problem solving outlined by problem solving therapy.

First, define the problem so you know exactly what you are trying to fix. Second, brainstorm solutions and think of different ways you could handle the problem. Third, take action by choosing a solution and actually trying it. Fourth, evaluate the results to see if your solution worked or if you need to try something else.

What is cognitive restructuring?

Cognitive restructuring is changing the way you think about a stressful situation. You identify thoughts that are making your stress worse and try to replace them with thoughts that are more realistic or helpful.

Describe the process of acceptance according to Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

Acceptance means recognizing that some situations, thoughts, or feelings cannot just be changed or avoided. Instead of constantly fighting them, you accept that they are there and focus on how you want to respond and move forward.

What is behavioral activation?

Behavioral activation means intentionally doing activities that are positive, meaningful, or enjoyable instead of withdrawing or doing nothing when you feel stressed or down.

 How do exercise and relaxation activities affect cortisol levels?

Exercise and relaxation activities can help regulate and lower cortisol levels after stress. Relaxation activities can include breathing exercises, mindfulness meditation, yoga, and progressive muscle relaxation.

What is empathy?

Empathy is being able to understand another person’s perspective and feel what they are feeling.

What factor has the most influence on who we become friends with?

Proximity has the most influence. We are more likely to become friends with people we have the most contact with and see regularly.

Why do you think homophily is such an influential phenomenon?

Homophily is so influential because it is usually easier to connect with people who are similar to us. Having similar backgrounds, attitudes, interests, or lifestyles gives us more things in common and can make it easier to get along and form a relationship.

How does social exchange theory say that we decide how much to devote to a relationship?

Social exchange theory says that we basically weigh the costs and benefits of a relationship. We are more likely to put time and effort into a relationship when the benefits outweigh the costs or when the relationship feels balanced.

What is a conditioned stimulus?

a stimulus that starts off at neutral but gets associated with another stimulus causes a learned response

Why do we often fail to recognize or remember that human behavior has multiple causes?

We usually look for one simple explanation for someone’s behavior, even though behavior is often influenced by multiple things at the same time.