Module 1: Normative and Professional Ethics

Terms and definitions

Ethics (as described by Davis)

A set of morally permissible standards of a group (at their best) that each member of the group wants every other member to follow even if their following them would mean they must do the same.

Morality (as described by Davis)

The set of standards everyone (every rational person at their rational best) wants every else to follow even if their following them means having to do the same.

Moral Theory

A way of defining morality

Religious ethics

A set of ethical standards for the followers of a particular religion.

Divine Command Theory

A moral theory that holds that X is good because God commands it, and for no other reason.

How do I know that X is good? Why is X good?

Part of the quest to define morality

Cultural Relativism

A moral theory that holds that no valid rational criterion for determining the right thing to do exists. An action is judged good or bad based only on the standards that have been adopted by one’s society. There is never any acceptable justification for one culture to override another.

Tolerance

The willingness to let people do what they wish as long as there is no overriding justification to do otherwise. Closely aligned with Cultural Relativism.

Virtue Theory

A moral theory that is concerned more with the nature of virtue and what it means to have virtue. Focuses more on the nature of the person making a decision than the decision itself.

Ideal mean

The half-way point when one considers all relevant factors. The middle of two ends of the extremes of a human characteristic. Closely aligned with Virtue Theory.

Righteous indignation

The anger we feel at someone’s underserved good or bad fortune.

Consequentialism

Any theory of ethics that holds that the consequence of an action, not the motivation behind the action, makes the action good or bad.

Utilitarianism

A consequentialist moral theory that says that the right decision is the one that causes the most happiness.

Thomas Aquinas

Believed that things are good in and of themselves. Debated on sides of the Divine Command Theory (1225 - 1274 CE)

John Calvin

Alongside Martin Luther, held no standards for good and evil outside of God, aligned with Divine Command Theory. (1509 - 1564)

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill

This duo is regarded as “The Father of Utilitarianism” and it’s strongest proponent.

Utilty

This word, In the context of this topic, means maximizing happiness in the world.

Aristotle

The primary developer of Virtue theory and the ideal mean, attempted to list the virtues/characteristics of a good person. (384 - 322 B.C.)

Deontological ethics theory

Focuses on rights, duties, obligations, and rules.

Immanual Kant

The progenitor of virtually all deontological theories who claimed the only thing that can be called good is good will. (1724 - 1804)

Good Will

The will of a person to act solely according to a code of morality based purely in reason (as defined by Kant).

The Categorical Imperative

A rule that must always be followed by all rational beings.

Contractarianism

A political and moral theory based on the premise that people are rational beings who wish to promote their own self-interests, and the best way of doing that is to promote the common interests of society.

Thomas Hobbes

The founder of contractarianism who claimed all people came from a naturally bleak “state of nature” and humans overcome this state by coming together with others for mutual benefit. (1588 - 1679)

John Rawls

Wrote A Theory of Justice, argues that all social contract theories of ethics must share a common core, which is that the society should be fair. Argued on behalf of two principles of Justice as Fairness underlie all just societies.

Justice as Fairness

Each person should have as extensive a set of basic freedoms as possible, as long as it doesn’t prevent others from having the same freedoms.

And the difference principle

The Difference Principle

Social and economic inequalities are justified only if

1. Everyone has a fair chance to obtain the better position

2. Such inequalities provide the greatest benefit to the least advantaged

Veil of Ignorance

A thought experiment that asks what contracts would be chosen before you were born, if you were completely ignorant to the circumstances of the life you would live.

Nel Noddings

Creator of the ethics of caring, opposed theories that try to prove things about morality.

Ethics of caring

Defines goodness in terms of whether or not we take care of the people around us

Characteristics of a Profession

Voluntarily serve a particular moral ideal, in a morally permissible way, beyond what the law, the market, and morality would otherwise require.

Institutional control

People with this vulnerability very vulnerable to decisions made by those who command them and have very few effective tools for resisting or protesting their treatment. As more of our daily lives are spent online, whoever controls this online sphere has more control over individual lives.

Lack of autonomy

People with this vulnerability very dependent on the good will of their guardian and are likely to be target because they can’t act directly on their own behalf to correct errors or seek redress when computer systems fail.

Physical limitiations

People with this vulnerability are likely to be overthought and have issues with accessibility on a lot of technology. They also tend to be more dependent on technology so are more vulnerable to technological failures or attacks.

Lack of resources

People with this vulnerability often lack access to the computing and communications infrastructure

Hate-motivated behaviors

People with this vulnerability are often intentionally targeted online due to the anonymity of being online. It may also be difficult for these people to seek legal redress for harms caused by technology.