NYU Social Psych Final Vocab/Applications Review

Natural Selection

The evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection

Sex

Categories into which humans are divided on the basis of reproductive functions

Gender

Meanings that individuals and societies ascribe to males/females and non-binary categories

If characteristics of men and women stem from interactions between social and biological causes then this distinction is imperfect

Gender Roles

A set of behavior expectations (norms) for males and females

Influence of Time on Gender Roles

Dramatic changes over the past half century.

Influence of Culture on Gender Roles

Trends toward more gender equality appear across many cultures

Social facilitation

Original meaning - The tendency of people to perform simple of well-learned tasks better when others are present.

Current meaning - The strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) responses in the presence of others.

When does social facilitation occur?

Occurs for tasks that are highly automatic and already well-learned

Social inhibition

Decreased performance in the presence of others

When does social inhibition occur?

Occurs for tasks that require learning novel responses or complex control

Group influence

Strengthening of dominant responses in the presence of others

(Possibly caused by increased arousal resulting from co-presence, leading to increased drive or motivation)

Evaluation apprehension

Concern for how others are evaluating us

(Enhancement of dominant responses is strongest when people think they are being evaluated)

Why are we aroused in the presence of others?

Evaluation apprehension

We are driven by distraction

Mere presence of others can be arousing even without evaluation or distraction.

Social loafing

The tendency of individuals to exert less effort toward a common/group goal than what they would do if they were individually accountable

Relationship between group size and degree of social loafing

Effort decreases/degree of social loafing increases as group size increases

Positive relationship

Deindividuation

A state during which individuals act in groups and no longer think of themselves as individuals

Early view: leads to antinormative behavior

Contemporary view: leads to heightened sensitivity to situational norms

Group polarization

Group-produced enhancement of members’ preexisting tendencies

Strengthening of the members’ average tendency, not a split within the group

Groupthink

Tendency for decision making groups to suppress dissent in the pursuit of group harmony

Symptoms of groupthink

Self-censorship, stereotyped view of the opponent, unquestioned belief in the group’s morality

Prejudice

An aversive or hostile attitude toward a person who belongs to a group simply because [they] belong to that group and is therefore presumed to have the objectionable qualities ascribed to the group

Stereotypes

A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people.

Prejudice contains stereotypes, but not all stereotypes are prejudice (e.g. benevolent stereotypes).

Discrimination

Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members

Which of the ABCs does prejudice fall under?

Attitude

Which of the ABCs do stereotypes fall under?

Beliefs

Which of the ABCs does discrimination fall under?

Behavior

Cognitive Perspective on Prejudice

Its mentally taxing to take in all information as being novel. Categorizing is a natural process to save mental capacity.

Economic Perspective on Prejudice

Conflict over limited resources

Stereotype threat

A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Just world phenomenon

The tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Ingroup bias

Preference for the ingroup at the expense of the outgroup

Morality, intelligence, and other positive traits are perceived as present in ingroup.

Outgroup homogeneity effect

Perceiving outgroup members as more similar than different

Illusory correlation

Association brought on by attentiveness to unusual occurrences

Factors influencing attraction and liking

Proximity, attractiveness, similarity, and familiarity

Proximity (factor of attraction)

Those who interact frequently are far more likely to become good friends than enemies

Which of the factors influencing attraction does the mere exposure effect involve?

Proximity

Attractiveness (factor of attraction)

From an evolutionary perspective, attractiveness signals health, youth, and fertility.

Physical attractiveness stereotype

The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well

Similarity (factor of attraction)

We are attracted to those who are similar to us

Reward theory of attraction

The theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events

Two-factor theory of emotion

Being aroused by any source should intensify passionate feelings

Self-disclosure

Companionate relationships are characterized by revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

Equity

A condition in which the outcomes people receive from relationships are proportional to what they contribute to it.

Three factors in Sternberg’s theory of love

Intimacy, commitment, and passion

Factor(s) of romantic love (Sternberg)

Passion and intimacy

Factor(s) of fatuous love (Sternberg)

Passion and commitment

Factor(s) of companionate love (Sternberg)

Intimacy and commitment

Factor(s) of empty love (Sternberg)

Commitment

Factor(s) of infatuation (Sternberg)

Passion

Factor(s) of liking (Sternberg)

Intimacy

Factor(s) of consummate love (Sternberg)

Passion, intimacy, and commitment

Companionate love (definition)

Deep commitment between two people who share affection for each other but who lack sexual desire or passion.

Passionate Love (definition)

A state of intense longing for union with another.

Altruism

A motive to increase another’s welfare without conscious regard for one’s own self-interests

Empathy

The vicarious experience of another’s feelings—putting oneself in another’s shoes

With their empathy aroused, people may help even when they believe no one will know about their helping.

Evolutionary (biological) explanation for externally rewarded helping

Reciprocity

Evolutionary (biological) explanation for intrinsic helping

Kin selection

Social norms (sociological) explanation for externally rewarded helping

Reciprocity norms

Social norms (sociological) explanation for intrinsic helping

Social-responsibility norms

Social-exchange (psychological) explanation for externally rewarded helping

External rewards for helping

Social-exchange (psychological) explanation for intrinsic helping

Distress leads to inner rewards for helping

Requirements for helping

1) Notice the event

2) Interpret event as emergency.

3) Assume responsibility for helping.

4) Know what to do to help.

5) Implement decision to help.

Social dilemma

Conflict between an individual’s immediate self-interest and interests of the collective.

When all individuals pursue their self-interest, they are worse off than if they had all cooperated

Ways of solving social dilemmas

Communication, social norms, reciprocity, punishment

Misperceptions

Forming distorted images of one another

Mirror Image Perceptions

Reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict

What is a prisoner’s best option in the Prisoner’s Dilemma (stay silent/betray) and why?

Betray because it’s a better strategy for them regardless of what the other prisoner chooses.

Contact Hypothesis (Allport)

Naturally-occurring and high-quality contact can reduce prejudice and intergroup hostility

Important contact conditions

Equal status between groups

Common goals

Cooperative interdependence

Support from authority

Ostracism

Acts of excluding or ignoring.

Halo effect

Positive impressions bleed into other beliefs.

Mere exposure effect

People tend to develop a preference for things simply because we are familiar with them.

Dyadic reciprocity

Perceiving a unique interest results in reflecting a unique interest.

Matching phenomenon

People don’t always pursue the most physically attractive partner. People tend to be somewhat aware of the extent to which others find them attractive.

Anxious (Preoccupied) Attachment Style

Distrustful, fear rejection, clingy, worry a lot

Inconsolable when caregiver leaves, not comforted on return, seek validation

Avoidant (Dismissive) Attachment Style

Avoid intimacy, hide emotions, don’t seek comfort

Show little preference for intimate others compared to strangers

Disorganized (Fearful) Attachment Style

Inconsistent, confusing, can lack trust

Unpredictable with intimate others, show both avoidant and anxious tendencies.

Secure Attachment Style

Feel safe, valued, understood, and comforted by caregivers/intimate others

Cry when caregiver leaves, comforted on return, willing to explore in presence of caregiver.

Functions of attachment

Proximity, safe haven, secure base

Proximity (function in attachment)

Seeking and sustaining resources when scared or sick.

Safe haven (attachment)

Can return for comfort and reassurance when in need of support.

Secure base (attachment)

Using attachment figure as foundation for confident play/exploration.

Allows for exploration and excursions with a certain level of security.

Stages of attachment disruption

Protest, despair, emotional detachment.

Protest (attachment disruption)

Intense sadness, anxiety, and vigilant denial.

Despair (attachment disruption)

Dejection and apathy.

Emotional detachment (attachment disruption)

Bond starts to loosen and a new routine begins.

Peak of Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Self-actualization

Interdependence Theory

People seek relationship outcomes where the rewards outweigh the costs.

Comparison level (CL)

The outcomes that we expect to receive in a given relationship.

Comparison level for alternatives (CL-Alt)

The outcomes one could receive in the best alternative relationship or on one’s own.

Flight risk

Situation where one partner perceives th other to have high CL-alt, whereas their own outcome is higher than CL-alt.

Michelangelo effect

Partners support and scaffold the other’s ideal self-views (through perceptions, compliments, encouragement), help others achieve goals for self (through opening opportunities).

Pygmalion phenomenon

Person tries to shape their partner to match their own, rather than the partner’s ideal.

Porcupine Dilemma

In order for relationships to be beneficial, we must allow ourselves to get close to another person. The closer we get to another person, the more vulnerable you are, opening you up to getting hurt.

Intrasexual competition

Competition among members of one sex for access to members of the other. ("Compete with")

Intersexual competition

Competition among members of one sex to be chosen by members of the other sex. ("Compete for")

Four Horsemen of the End of Relationships

Criticism, Contempt, Defensiveness, Stonewalling

Criticism (Four Horsemen)

Attacking one’s personality or character instead of the issue

Contempt (Four Horsemen)

Acting superior through mockery or disrespect (particularly devastating)

Defensiveness (Four Horsemen)

Self-protection through righteous indignation or playing the victim.