Studied by 268 people
Natural Selection
The evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection
Sex
Categories into which humans are divided on the basis of reproductive functions
Gender
Meanings that individuals and societies ascribe to males/females and non-binary categories
If characteristics of men and women stem from interactions between social and biological causes then this distinction is imperfect
Gender Roles
A set of behavior expectations (norms) for males and females
Influence of Time on Gender Roles
Dramatic changes over the past half century.
Influence of Culture on Gender Roles
Trends toward more gender equality appear across many cultures
Social facilitation
Original meaning - The tendency of people to perform simple of well-learned tasks better when others are present.
Current meaning - The strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) responses in the presence of others.
When does social facilitation occur?
Occurs for tasks that are highly automatic and already well-learned
Social inhibition
Decreased performance in the presence of others
When does social inhibition occur?
Occurs for tasks that require learning novel responses or complex control
Group influence
Strengthening of dominant responses in the presence of others
(Possibly caused by increased arousal resulting from co-presence, leading to increased drive or motivation)
Evaluation apprehension
Concern for how others are evaluating us
(Enhancement of dominant responses is strongest when people think they are being evaluated)
Why are we aroused in the presence of others?
Evaluation apprehension
We are driven by distraction
Mere presence of others can be arousing even without evaluation or distraction.
Social loafing
The tendency of individuals to exert less effort toward a common/group goal than what they would do if they were individually accountable
Relationship between group size and degree of social loafing
Effort decreases/degree of social loafing increases as group size increases
Positive relationship
Deindividuation
A state during which individuals act in groups and no longer think of themselves as individuals
Early view: leads to antinormative behavior
Contemporary view: leads to heightened sensitivity to situational norms
Group polarization
Group-produced enhancement of members’ preexisting tendencies
Strengthening of the members’ average tendency, not a split within the group
Groupthink
Tendency for decision making groups to suppress dissent in the pursuit of group harmony
Symptoms of groupthink
Self-censorship, stereotyped view of the opponent, unquestioned belief in the group’s morality
Prejudice
An aversive or hostile attitude toward a person who belongs to a group simply because [they] belong to that group and is therefore presumed to have the objectionable qualities ascribed to the group
Stereotypes
A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people.
Prejudice contains stereotypes, but not all stereotypes are prejudice (e.g. benevolent stereotypes).
Discrimination
Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members
Which of the ABCs does prejudice fall under?
Attitude
Which of the ABCs do stereotypes fall under?
Beliefs
Which of the ABCs does discrimination fall under?
Behavior
Cognitive Perspective on Prejudice
Its mentally taxing to take in all information as being novel. Categorizing is a natural process to save mental capacity.
Economic Perspective on Prejudice
Conflict over limited resources
Stereotype threat
A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
Just world phenomenon
The tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
Ingroup bias
Preference for the ingroup at the expense of the outgroup
Morality, intelligence, and other positive traits are perceived as present in ingroup.
Outgroup homogeneity effect
Perceiving outgroup members as more similar than different
Illusory correlation
Association brought on by attentiveness to unusual occurrences
Factors influencing attraction and liking
Proximity, attractiveness, similarity, and familiarity
Proximity (factor of attraction)
Those who interact frequently are far more likely to become good friends than enemies
Which of the factors influencing attraction does the mere exposure effect involve?
Proximity
Attractiveness (factor of attraction)
From an evolutionary perspective, attractiveness signals health, youth, and fertility.
Physical attractiveness stereotype
The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well
Similarity (factor of attraction)
We are attracted to those who are similar to us
Reward theory of attraction
The theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events
Two-factor theory of emotion
Being aroused by any source should intensify passionate feelings
Self-disclosure
Companionate relationships are characterized by revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.
Equity
A condition in which the outcomes people receive from relationships are proportional to what they contribute to it.
Three factors in Sternberg’s theory of love
Intimacy, commitment, and passion
Factor(s) of romantic love (Sternberg)
Passion and intimacy
Factor(s) of fatuous love (Sternberg)
Passion and commitment
Factor(s) of companionate love (Sternberg)
Intimacy and commitment
Factor(s) of empty love (Sternberg)
Commitment
Factor(s) of infatuation (Sternberg)
Passion
Factor(s) of liking (Sternberg)
Intimacy
Factor(s) of consummate love (Sternberg)
Passion, intimacy, and commitment
Companionate love (definition)
Deep commitment between two people who share affection for each other but who lack sexual desire or passion.
Passionate Love (definition)
A state of intense longing for union with another.
Altruism
A motive to increase another’s welfare without conscious regard for one’s own self-interests
Empathy
The vicarious experience of another’s feelings—putting oneself in another’s shoes
With their empathy aroused, people may help even when they believe no one will know about their helping.
Evolutionary (biological) explanation for externally rewarded helping
Reciprocity
Evolutionary (biological) explanation for intrinsic helping
Kin selection
Social norms (sociological) explanation for externally rewarded helping
Reciprocity norms
Social norms (sociological) explanation for intrinsic helping
Social-responsibility norms
Social-exchange (psychological) explanation for externally rewarded helping
External rewards for helping
Social-exchange (psychological) explanation for intrinsic helping
Distress leads to inner rewards for helping
Requirements for helping
1) Notice the event
2) Interpret event as emergency.
3) Assume responsibility for helping.
4) Know what to do to help.
5) Implement decision to help.
Social dilemma
Conflict between an individual’s immediate self-interest and interests of the collective.
When all individuals pursue their self-interest, they are worse off than if they had all cooperated
Ways of solving social dilemmas
Communication, social norms, reciprocity, punishment
Misperceptions
Forming distorted images of one another
Mirror Image Perceptions
Reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict
What is a prisoner’s best option in the Prisoner’s Dilemma (stay silent/betray) and why?
Betray because it’s a better strategy for them regardless of what the other prisoner chooses.
Contact Hypothesis (Allport)
Naturally-occurring and high-quality contact can reduce prejudice and intergroup hostility
Important contact conditions
Equal status between groups
Common goals
Cooperative interdependence
Support from authority
Ostracism
Acts of excluding or ignoring.
Halo effect
Positive impressions bleed into other beliefs.
Mere exposure effect
People tend to develop a preference for things simply because we are familiar with them.
Dyadic reciprocity
Perceiving a unique interest results in reflecting a unique interest.
Matching phenomenon
People don’t always pursue the most physically attractive partner. People tend to be somewhat aware of the extent to which others find them attractive.
Anxious (Preoccupied) Attachment Style
Distrustful, fear rejection, clingy, worry a lot
Inconsolable when caregiver leaves, not comforted on return, seek validation
Avoidant (Dismissive) Attachment Style
Avoid intimacy, hide emotions, don’t seek comfort
Show little preference for intimate others compared to strangers
Disorganized (Fearful) Attachment Style
Inconsistent, confusing, can lack trust
Unpredictable with intimate others, show both avoidant and anxious tendencies.
Secure Attachment Style
Feel safe, valued, understood, and comforted by caregivers/intimate others
Cry when caregiver leaves, comforted on return, willing to explore in presence of caregiver.
Functions of attachment
Proximity, safe haven, secure base
Proximity (function in attachment)
Seeking and sustaining resources when scared or sick.
Safe haven (attachment)
Can return for comfort and reassurance when in need of support.
Secure base (attachment)
Using attachment figure as foundation for confident play/exploration.
Allows for exploration and excursions with a certain level of security.
Stages of attachment disruption
Protest, despair, emotional detachment.
Protest (attachment disruption)
Intense sadness, anxiety, and vigilant denial.
Despair (attachment disruption)
Dejection and apathy.
Emotional detachment (attachment disruption)
Bond starts to loosen and a new routine begins.
Peak of Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Self-actualization
Interdependence Theory
People seek relationship outcomes where the rewards outweigh the costs.
Comparison level (CL)
The outcomes that we expect to receive in a given relationship.
Comparison level for alternatives (CL-Alt)
The outcomes one could receive in the best alternative relationship or on one’s own.
Flight risk
Situation where one partner perceives th other to have high CL-alt, whereas their own outcome is higher than CL-alt.
Michelangelo effect
Partners support and scaffold the other’s ideal self-views (through perceptions, compliments, encouragement), help others achieve goals for self (through opening opportunities).
Pygmalion phenomenon
Person tries to shape their partner to match their own, rather than the partner’s ideal.
Porcupine Dilemma
In order for relationships to be beneficial, we must allow ourselves to get close to another person. The closer we get to another person, the more vulnerable you are, opening you up to getting hurt.
Intrasexual competition
Competition among members of one sex for access to members of the other. ("Compete with")
Intersexual competition
Competition among members of one sex to be chosen by members of the other sex. ("Compete for")
Four Horsemen of the End of Relationships
Criticism, Contempt, Defensiveness, Stonewalling
Criticism (Four Horsemen)
Attacking one’s personality or character instead of the issue
Contempt (Four Horsemen)
Acting superior through mockery or disrespect (particularly devastating)
Defensiveness (Four Horsemen)
Self-protection through righteous indignation or playing the victim.
Note
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