Study Guide

multi-directionality

development involves both growth and decline; as people grow in one area, they may lose in another and at different rates

ageism

a form of discrimination against older adults based on their age; myths of aging leads to negative stereotypes of older people

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terror management theory, modernization hypothesis, multiple jeopardy hypothesis

terror management theory

seeing older adults reminds us of our mortality

modernization hypothesis

industrialization led older adults to become obsolete

multiple jeopardy hypothesis

ageism is another “ism” (intersectionality)

plasticity

one’s capacity is not predetermined or set in concrete

normative age-graded influences on development

experiences caused by biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces that occur to most people of a particular age

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cultural norms

reliability

consistency

validity

measures what it intends to measure

naturalistic observation

Jane Goodall

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observe in a natural environment

structural observation

give people a specific task or scenario to do and see how they respond

sampling behavior with tasks

cognitive testing, for example, or on road driving

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seeing peoples behavior when given tasks

self-report measures

questionnaires

case studies

can be study of single person or multiple individuals

designs for studying development

cross-sectional designs

longitudinal designs

sequential designs

effects that can affect results of designs for studying development

age effects within subjects

cohort effects

time of measurement effects

SOC (selective optimization with compensation)

* as people age, they begin to focus on or SELECT those abilities deemed essential for functioning
* people then OPTIMIZE their behavior by focusing on this more limited set of abilities (maximize performance in these areas)
* people learn to COMPENSATE for declines by designing workaround strategies (making up for losses in one area with gains in others)

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essentially trying to achieve homeostasis

self-efficacy (ability to do things on your own and your understanding of that)

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example: a person who can no longer drive is able to find/afford alternative transportation, or, a person who is compensating for having less energy learns how to reorganize their daily routine to avoid over-exertion

low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)

cause fatty deposits to accumulate in arteries, impeding blood flow

high-density lipoproteins (HDLs)

help keep arteries clear and break down LDLs

stress and coping paradigm

views stress not as an environmental stimulus or as a response but as the interaction of a thinking person and an event

primary appraisal of stress

categorizes events into three groups based on the significance they have for our well-being: irrelevant, benign or positive, and stressful

secondary appraisal of stress

evaluates our perceived ability to cope with harm, threat, or challenge

reappraisal of stress

involves making a new primary or secondary appraisal resulting from changes in the situation

diabetes mellitus

occurs when the pancreas produces insufficient insulin

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primary characteristic is above-normal sugar in the blood and urine caused by problems in metabolizing carbohydrates

type 1 diabetes

usually develops earlier in life and requires the use of insulin, hence it is sometimes called insulin-dependent diabetes

type 2 diabetes

typically develops in adulthood and is often effectively managed through diet

incontinence

the loss of the ability to control the elimination of urine and feces on an occasional or consistent basis

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stress, urge, overflow, functional

stress incontinence

happens when pressure in the abdomen exceeds the ability to resist urinary flow

urge incontinence

caused by a CNS problem after a stroke or UTI

overflow incontinence

results from improper contraction of the kidneys, causing the bladder to become over-distended

functional incontinence

occurs when the urinary tract is intact but because of physical disability or cognitive impairment the person is unaware of the need to urinate

activities of daily living (ADLs)

include basic self-care tasks

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eating, bathing, toileting, walking, dressing

instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs)

actions that entail some intellectual competence and planning

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cooking, driving, etc.

physical limitations (PLIM)

activities that reflect functional limitations such as walking a block or sitting for about two hours

age-related changes in neurons

* number of neurons declines
* number and size of dendrites decreases
* tangles develop in axon fibers
* increases in deposits of proteins
* number of synapses decreases

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these changes occur in greater numbers in diseases such as Alzheimer’s

declines in dopamine are related to poorer…

* episodic memory
* tasks that require higher-level cognitive functioning like inhibiting thoughts, attention, and planning

age-related changes in other neurotransmitters

* abnormal processing of serotonin has been shown to be related to cognitive decline
* damage to structures that use acetylcholine is associated with memory declines

age-related changes in brain structures

* considerable shrinkage occurs in the brain (especially prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum)
* white matter hyper intensities (WMH)
* indicates myelin loss or neural atrophy
* diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
* provides index of density or structural health of the white matter

what structural brain changes mean for emotion

* increased processing of positive emotional information with age
* better emotion regulation with age
* age-related increase in connections

what structural brain changes means for memory

specific structural changes (like the hippocampus) result in memory decline

what structural brain changes mean for social-emotional cognition

older adults may rely more on automatic judgment processes than reflective processing

what structural brain changes mean for prefrontal cortex

the positivity effect (older adults are more motivated to derive emotional meaning from like and to maintain positive feelings than younger adults)

the Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory (P-FIT)

proposes that intelligence comes from a distributed and integrated network of neurons in the parietal and frontal areas of the brain

theories of brain-behavior changes

* HAROLD
* CRUNCH
* PASA
* STAC-r

HAROLD

hemispheric asymmetry reduction in OLDer adults

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suggests bilaterally is compensatory in older adults with reduced cognitive ability

CRUNCH

compensation-related utilization of neural circuits hypothesis

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additional mechanisms at work of aging brains over-utilizing other regions in the left hemisphere on demanding tasks

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describes how the aging brain adapts to neurological decline by recruiting additional neural circuits to perform tasks adequately

PASA

posterior-anterior shift in aging

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from occipital to frontal processing is thought to reflect age-related compensation

STAC-r

scaffolding theory of cognitive age - revised

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default network theory holds that when the cognitive demands are made on the brain the default network is suppressed

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neural resource enrichment and depletion interact with neural plasticity to account for age-related changes in cognitive functioning

compensatory changes

changes that allow older adults to adapt to the inevitable behavioral decline resulting from changes in specific areas of the brain

three general approaches to slowing or reversing the aging process…

* delay the chronic illnesses of old age
* slow the fundamental processes of aging to increase life span
* arrest or reverse aging by removing the damage caused by the metabolic process (think taking out tumor)

why does our skin wrinkle

* losing connectivity
* loss of elasticity
* decrease in underlying fat

effects of sun exposure on skin

* damage to DNA
* production of harmful enzymes that break down collagen and elastic fibers leading to increased wrinkles and thinning skin (increased risk for cancer)
* skin has a memory

hair loss caused by…

destruction of germ centers that produce hair follicles

graying hair caused by…

cessation of pigment production

other hair changes for males

do not lose facial hair

other hair changes for females

gain facial hair (caused by hormonal changes of the climacteric)

differences between young and old voices

* lowering in pitch
* increased breathlessness and trembling
* slower and less pronounced pronunciation
* decreased volume

differences in the way bodies look over time

decrease in height between mid-50s and mid-70s

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men lose about 1 inch and women 2 inches

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compression of the spine and changes in posture

weight gain then loss

weight gain in the middle years

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weight loss in the later years

changes in mobility - muscles

* strength loss: age 70 - up to 20%; age 80 - up to 40%
* no difference in the rate of muscle change between men and women
* lower body muscle loss contributes to increased loss of balance

changes in mobility - bones

* loss begins in the late 30s, accelerates in the 50s, and slows in the 70s
* gender differences
* osteoporosis (leading cause of broken bones in older women)

changes in mobility - joints

* osteoarthritis
* rheumatoid arthritis

effects of structural changes in the eye

* adaptation - light and dark
* presbyopia - fancy word for needing reading glasses
* cataracts - opaque spots that may develop on the lens, limiting the amount of light transmitted
* glaucoma - high pressure due to lack of fluid drainage

effects of retinal changes

* macular degeneration
* diabetic retinopathy

psychological effects of visual changes

* loss of activities
* changes in personality
* increase in vulnerability to falls
* corrective actions

social adjustment to hearing loss

loss of independence

social isolation

irritation

paranoia

depression

taste

greater loss in sour and bitter tastes, risk of malnutrition

smell

memory differences between odors and other memory cues

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reduced pleasure in eating, personal hygiene may suffer, and safety factors

underlying cause of diminished capacity of cardiovascular system

accumulation of fat deposits

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stiffening of the heart muscle

decline in aerobic capacity of the cardiovascular system

staying in good shape leads to less decline and less threat of heart attacks during moderate physical tasks

the most common chronic condition

arthritis

ethnic and gender differences in cardiovascular diseases

* middle adulthood more men than women
* later adulthood frequency converges between sexes
* higher rates of African and Native Americans

congestive heart failure causes

include angina and myocardial infarction (MI) (heart attack)

atherosclerosis

* cerebrovascular accident (CVA)
* hypertension (higher rates among African Americans)

cardiac conditions

* atherosclerosis
* arteriosclerosis
* coronary heart disease
* hypertension
* congestive heart failure

cerebrovascular conditions

* cerebrovascular attack (stroke)
* transient ischemic attack (mini-stroke)

behavioral risk factors

* abdominal obesity (“apple” shape)
* dyslipedemia - triglycerides
* dyslipedemia - cholesterol
* hypertension

prevention of heart disease and stroke focuses on three key factors

* statins
* exercise
* diet

type 2 (adult onset) diabetes characteristics

* pancreas produces insulin but body’s tissues don’t respond to insulin signal (insulin resistance)
* glucose therefore not transported to body’s cells and accumulates in the blood
* hypoglycemia can develop if medications increase insulin production
* hyperglycemia can develop if glucose levels become too high

prevention of diabetes

* control of glucose intake, blood pressure, lipids
* exercise and weight control

treatment of diabetes

* frequent testing (to prevent hypo- and hyperglycemia)
* diet and exercise may be sufficient
* otherwise, require insulin or oral medications

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

emphysema

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chronic bronchitis

emphysema

* 82% self-induced by smoking
* loss of elasticity in the alveoli

chronic bronchitis

* more common with people over 45
* asthma is common respiratory disease that is increasing in prevalence
* e-cigarettes and vaping contribute to lung damage
* bronchial tubes inflamed and irritated

female reproductive system

* climacteric change begins in the 40s
* menopause
* no physiological reason why most women cannot continue sexual activity into old age

climacteric change

* transition - perimenopause
* changes in reproductive organs and sexual functioning

menopause

* ethnic differences in the severity of symptoms
* loss of estrogen is related to health conditions
* treatments, diet, yoga, and menopausal hormone therapy

male reproductive system

* unlike menopause, no event to mark reproductive changes
* decline in testosterone levels
* decrease in sperm production (30% between ages 30 and 60)
* prostate cancer is a real threat
* erectile dysfunction is treatable

regulating body temperature

elderly susceptible to hypothermia and hyperthermia

sleep and aging

* nearly every aspect of sleep undergoes age-related changes
* circadian rhythm changes
* shift from two-phase to multiphase pattern

psychological implications of sleep

* difficulty in thermoregulation is a significant threat and requires an environment that provides external means of temperature regulation
* a good night’s sleep is important for maintaining overall good health

presbycusis

* cumulative effects of noise and normative age-related changes creates the most common age-related hearing problem
* reduced sensitivity to high-pitched tones, which occurs earlier and more severely than the loss of sensitivity to low-pitched tones

Kurt Lewin (1936)

B = f(P,E)

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* B = behavior
* P = person
* could be personality, perceived support, physical mobility, their past/historical trauma, etc.
* E = environment
* support, family of origin, where you live, individualism vs. collectivism, etc.

Competence and Environmental Press Model

how your capacity to function and environmental pressures interact

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to balance press and competence is to adapt

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to be competent - good housing, good financials, basic needs, enough stimulation or too much stimulation, accessibility

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adaptation level

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zone of maximum performance potential

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zone of maximum comfort

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Lawton and Nahemow’s 1973 model

disability

the effects of chronic conditions on people’s ability to engage in activities that are necessary, expected, and personally desired in their society

competence

the theoretical upper limit of a person’s capacity to funciton

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ability to handle situation, cognitive abilities, physical abilities

environmental press

refers to the physical interpersonal, or social demands that environments put on people

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stimulation

expectations (somebody may not have insight into their limitations, like when a collector becomes a hoarder)

activity level

zone of maximum performance potential

a slight increase in press improves performance

zone of maximum comfort

created by slight decreases in press

Lawton and Nahemow’s 1973 model

suggests that behavior depends on one’s competence level in an environment with a particular level of environmental press

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* proactivity is choosing new behaviors to meet new desires/needs
* docility is allowing the situation to dictate the options