Cognitive Psychology: Memory, Concepts, and Problem-Solving Strategies

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Prototypes

The best or most typical example of a concept.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into an existing schema.

Accommodation

Adjusting or creating a new schema for new information.

Executive Function

Mental processes like planning, organizing, decision-making, and self-control.

Creativity

Ability to produce new and valuable ideas.

Divergent Thinking

Thinking that produces many possible solutions.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing multiple ideas to find the single best solution.

Algorithms

Step-by-step method guaranteeing a correct solution.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that speed decision-making but may cause errors.

Functional Fixedness

Seeing objects only in their usual function.

Priming

Unconscious activation of associations in memory.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype.

Framing

The way information is presented influences decisions.

Gamblers Fallacy

Belief that past random events affect future ones.

Availability Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

Mental Set

Tendency to use past methods to solve current problems.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing something because of past investment instead of future benefit.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recall of facts and experiences.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal events.

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts and general knowledge.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory (skills, conditioned responses).

Procedural Memory

Memory for automatic skills.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do things in the future.

Long-Term Potentiation

Strengthening of synapses from repeated stimulation.

Synaptic Connections

Points where neurons communicate.

Central Executive

Directs attention and controls working memory systems.

Phonological Loop

Verbal/auditory part of working memory.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Visual/spatial part of working memory.

Sensory Memory

Immediate recording of sensory information.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory (<1 second).

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory (3-4 seconds).

Short-Term Memory

Brief holding of a small amount of information.

Long-Term Memory

Unlimited, durable memory storage.

Working Memory

Active processing and manipulation of information.

Automatic Processing

Encoding without effort or awareness.

Effortful Processing

Encoding requiring attention and effort.

Shallow Processing

Encoding based on surface features.

Deep Processing

Encoding based on meaningful connections.

Structural Processing

Encoding based on appearance.

Phonetic Processing

Encoding based on sound.

Semantic Processing

Encoding based on meaning.

Mnemonic Devices

Techniques to improve memory using patterns or imagery.

Method of Loci

Memory technique using familiar locations.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units.

Categories

Organizing info into groups with shared traits.

Hierarchies

Broad-to-narrow organization systems.

Spacing Effect

Studying over time improves memory.

Massed Practice

Cramming information all at once.

Distributed Practice

Studying across multiple sessions.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall first and last items best.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of first items.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating info to keep it in STM.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new info with meaning.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory of personal life events.

Amnesia

Loss of memory.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall past memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Alzheimers Disease

Degenerative disorder causing memory and cognitive decline.

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to remember early childhood (before age 3).

Recall

Retrieving without cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information.

Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall in the same environment.

State-Dependent Memory

Better recall when in the same physical state.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Tendency to recall memories consistent with current mood.

Retrieval Practice

Practicing by recalling information.

Testing Effect

Memory improves through testing, not rereading.

Metacognition

Awareness of your own thinking.

Forgetting Curve

Decline in memory over time without rehearsal.

Encoding Failure

Information never enters long-term memory.

Proactive Interference

Old info interferes with new.

Retroactive Interference

New info interferes with old.

Inadequate Retrieval

Lack of cues prevents recall.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Knowing something but unable to retrieve it.

Repression

Unconscious exclusion of painful memories.

Ego Defenses

Unconscious strategies to reduce anxiety.

Misinformation Effect

Memory distortion from misleading info.

Source Amnesia

Forgetting where information came from.

Constructive Memory

Memory built from stored info + assumptions.

Memory Consolidation

Stabilizing memories for long-term storage.

Imagination Inflation

Repeated imagining increases belief something happened.

General Ability

One underlying intelligence factor.

Multiple Abilities

Intelligence consists of several independent skills.

Mental Age

Intellectual age based on test performance.

Chronological Age

Actual age in years.

Flynn Effect

IQ scores rise across generations.

Achievement Tests

Measure what youve learned.

Aptitude Tests

Predict your ability to learn new skills.

Fixed Mindset

Belief that intelligence is static.

Growth Mindset

Belief intelligence can grow with effort.

Standardized

Uniform procedures and scoring.

Valid

The test measures what it claims to measure.

Construct Validity

Test measures the intended theoretical concept.

Predictive Validity

Test predicts future performance.

Sociocultural Responsiveness

Sensitivity to cultural and social diversity in assessment.

Stereotype Threat

Fear of confirming a stereotype lowers performance.

Stereotype Lift

Awareness of positive stereotypes boosts performance.

Reliable

Test gives consistent results.

Test-Retest Reliability

Same test gives same results over time.