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Contour map
represents the 3D shape of a surface in 2D by connecting points of equal elevation.
Contour rules
never cross (except in special circumstances like vertical cliffs).
Contour interval
The difference in elevation between adjacent contour lines.
Overburden
refers to the layers of soil and rock that lie above a mineral deposit and must be removed during surface mining to access the resource.
Mining ratio
the volume of waste material (overburden) that must be removed to obtain a given volume of ore.
Acres
A unit of area, representing 43,560 square feet.
Acre-feet
A unit of volume, used to measure water (volume of water that would cover one acre to a depth of one foot). 1 acre-foot = 43,560 cubic feet.
Fault
a crack or fracture in Earth's crust along which movement has occurred.
Focus
the point within the Earth where an earthquake originates, below the surface.
Epicenter
the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus where the earthquake's effects are most strongly felt.
Seismograph method
Measures the arrival times of seismic waves at different locations.
Triangulation method
Involves using data from three or more seismograph stations to triangulate the location.
P-waves
Longitudinal waves that compress and expand the ground.
S-waves
Transverse waves that move the ground perpendicular to the wave direction.
pH scale
measures the acidity or basicity of a substance, ranging from 0 to 14.
Acid mine drainage
Often acidic, pH can be as low as 2-5 due to acid mine drainage.
Chlorine
is added to disinfect water, killing bacteria and other pathogens.
Copper
is sometimes added to water systems to inhibit microbial growth and prevent biofilm formation in pipes.
Water hardness
is measured in terms of the concentration of calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) ions.
Freshwater percentage
Approximately 2.5% of Earth's water is freshwater.
Surface water
Water found on the Earth's surface in rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
Groundwater
Water stored beneath the Earth's surface in soil or rock formations.
Water table
upper level of the saturated zone where groundwater is stored.
Hydraulic head
is the total energy per unit weight of water, including both elevation head and pressure head.
Saturated zone
the area where all the pores in the soil or rock are filled with water.
Unsaturated zone
lies above the water table, where the pores contain both air and water.
Cone of depression
forms around a well when water is pumped out faster than it can recharge, causing the water table to drop locally.
Confining layer
is an impermeable layer (such as clay) that restricts the movement of groundwater, typically separating different aquifers.
