Democracy, Economy, Social Reform

What was the primary focus of Jacksonian Democracy?

The presidency of Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) and the expansion of power to the 'common man'.

How did Jacksonian Democracy expand suffrage?

By eliminating property qualifications for voting, significantly increasing white male suffrage.

What was the Nullification Crisis?

A conflict centered on Southern opposition to the Tariff of Abominations, where South Carolina threatened to nullify the federal tariff.

What was Jackson's response to the Nullification Crisis?

He threatened to use force (the Force Bill) to collect the tariff, asserting federal supremacy.

What did the Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorize?

The relocation of Native American tribes from the Southeast to territories west of the Mississippi River.

What was the Trail of Tears?

The forced march of thousands of Native Americans, resulting in significant deaths, following the Indian Removal Act.

What was Henry Clay's American System?

A plan to strengthen the national economy through protective tariffs, a national bank, and internal improvements.

How did the North, South, and West become economically interdependent?

The North industrialized, the South focused on cash crops, and the West provided food and raw materials, linked by infrastructure.

What were Eli Whitney's major inventions?

The Cotton Gin, which increased cotton production, and Interchangeable Parts, which facilitated mass production.

What was the Second Great Awakening?

A revival movement of social and religous reforms

What social reform did the Temperance movement advocate?

The reduction or prohibition of alcohol consumption to combat poverty and domestic abuse.

Who was Horace Mann?

The 'Father of the Common School Movement', advocating for taxpayer-funded public education.

What was the Spoils System?

The practice of giving government jobs to supporters of a winning political party, strongly advocated by Andrew Jackson.

What was the Tariff of Abominations?

The nickname given to the Tariff of 1828 by Southern opponents, highlighting its negative impact on the Southern economy.

What were the transportation improvements advocated by the American System?

Internal improvements like roads, canals, and later railroads, crucial for linking agricultural and industrial regions.

What does the Rise of the Factory System refer to?

The shift from home-based production to centralized manufacturing in factories, utilizing powered machinery.

What was Dorothea Dix known for?

Her reform efforts that led to the creation of the first American mental asylums and improved treatment of the mentally ill.

What was the impact of the Second Great Awakening on women's rights?

It highlighted women's lack of rights, leading to their active participation in the women's rights movement.

what was the National Banks purpose?

The National Bank was created to stabilize the national economy by issuing a uniform currency and controlling credit to promote commerce and growth.

What was the purpose of Protective Tariffs?

To make more money off of foreign goods and make American goods look better and cheaper and made people buy american made products more

why where Interchangeable parts so monumental at the time?

Interchangeable parts are identical, standardized components that can be used universally to replace a broken part in a machine, enabling mass production by unskilled labor and simplifying repairs.

The Election of 1824

- "Era of Good Feelings" -> ended in political bad feelings -> bitterly contested & divisive presidential election

- Old presidential caucus system of choosing prez shut down -> 4 candidates from Dem Repub party of Jefferson campaigned for presidency John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, & Andrew Jackson

- Controversy -> 1824 election, Jackson won more popular votes, but Adams won more electoral votes

- House of reps had to choose prez from among top 3 candidates

- Henry Clay used his influence on the House to provide Adams of MA w/ enough votes to in election

- When Prez Adams appted Clay as Sec of State, Jackson & followers charged that decision of voters had been foiled by secret political maneuvers

- Angry Jackson supported accused Adams & Clay of making a "corrupt bargain"

President John Quincy Adams

- His presidency is ultimately a failure

- Citizens didn't like Adams

- Adams further alienated followers of Jackson when he asked Cong for for internal improvements, aid to manufacturing, & even a national university and astronomical observatory

• But Cong denied most of his proposals

- Jacksonians viewed all these measures as waste of & violation of Constitution

• Most signif -> in 1828, Cong patched together new tariff law, which generally satisfied northern manufacturers but alienated southern planters

• Southerners denounced it as "tariff of abominations"

The Revolution of 1828

- Adams sought reelection in 1828, Jacksonians ready to use discontent of southerners & westerners & new campaign tactics to sweep Jackson in to officer

- Jackson's party resorted to smearing the prez & accusing Adams's wife of being born out of wedlock

- Supporters of Adams retaliated in kind, accusing Jackson's wife of adultery

- Voter turnout soared

- Jackson won, carrying every state west of Appalachians

• His reputation as war hero & man of western frontier accounted for his victory more than the positions he took on issues of the time

- Adams is in Cong --> his work in Cong is remembered more

The Rise of a Democratic Society

- Among White majority in Amer society, ppl shared belief in principle of equality (equality for White males)

- These beliefs ignored enslavement of most Afr Amers & discrimination against anyone who wasn't White

- Equality of opportunity would, at least in theory, allow a young man of humble origins to ride as far as his natural talent & industry would take him

- Hero of the age = 'self-made man'

- New equivalent of 'self-made woman'

- Restrictions, both legal & cultural, limited what women could do

- But by end of 1840s, feminists would take up theme of equal rights & insist that it should be applied to both men & women

Politics of the Common Man

- Btwn 1824 & 1840, politics moved out of fine homes of rich southern planters & northern merchants who dominated govt in past eras

- Several factors contributed to spread of democracy-> suffrage laws, changes in political parties & campaigns, improved education, & inc in newspaper circulation

Universal White Male suffrage

- Western states newly admitted to the Union- Indiana, Illinois, & Missouri- adopted state consitutions that allowed all White males to vote & hold office

- omitted any religious/property qualifications for voting

• most eastern states followed suit, eliminating such restrictions

• As a result, throughout country, all White males could vote regardless of their social class/religion

- Voting for prez in from 350k to 2.4 mill in 1840 (nearly 7-fold in just 16 years)

• Mostly as result of changes in voting laws

• In addition -> political officers could be held by ppl in lower & middle ranks of society

Party Nominating Conventions

- In past, candidates for office had been nominated by either state legislatures of by “King Caucus" -> closed door meeting of political party's leaders in Cong

- Common citizens -> no opportunity to participate

- In 1830s, hwvr, caucuses were replaced by nominating conventions

- Party politicians & voters would gather in large meeting hall to nominate party's candidates

- Anti-Masonic Party was 1st to hold such a convention

- This method was more open to popular participation, hence more democratic

- In prez election of 1832 -> in SC used old system in which state legislatures chose electors for prez

- All other states adopted more democratic method of allowing voters to choose state's slate of prez electors

Spoils System

Practice where Political victors awarded gov’t jobs and favors to their supporters and was based more on loyalty to the political leaders beliefs then of being good at the job

Rotation of Officeholders

- Jackson believed in system of rotation in office

- By limiting person to 1 term in office, he could then appt some other deserving Dem in his place

- Jackson defended replacement/rotation of officeholders as democratic reform

• "No man has any more intrinsic claim to office than another"

- Both spoils system & rotation of officeholders affirmed democratic ideal that one man = as good as another & that ordinary Amers were capable of holding any gov't office

Historical Perspectives: Jacksonian Era Revolutionized American Politics

Jackson's election began era of common man And shifted the power from the elite wealthy to the “common man” and strengthened the presidency

Historical Perspectives: Jacksonian Era DIDN’T Revolutionize American Politics

Opposing view = 19th-Cent Whig historians viewed Jackson as despot whose appeal to uneducated masses & "corrupt" spoils system threatened republic

Jacksonian Era & Urban Workers

- Jacksonian democracy relied as much on support of eastern urban workers as on western farmers

- Jackson's coalition of farmers & workers foreshadowed similar coalition that elected another Dem prez, Roosevelt, in 1930s

Jacksonian Era Cultural Influence

- Inc voter participation in local elections in years before 1828 & didn't peak until election of 1840, an election that Whig party won

- Some historians argue that religion & ethnicity were more important than economic class in shaping voice

• Ex. Catholic immigrants objected imposition of Puritan moral code (e.g. temperance) by native-born Protestants

Jacksonian Era Economic Clash

- Recent historians see Jackson's popularity in 1830 as reaction of subsistence farmers & urban workers against threatening forces of economic changes

- Capitalist, or market, economy was taking shape in early 19th cent

- This market rev divided the electorate

- Some, including many Whigs, wanted greater role for business owners

- Jackson's veto of bank captured popular fears abt rise of capitalism

Andrew Jackson Background

- Became symbol of emerging working & middle class ("common man")

- Gained fame as Indian fighter & as hero of Battle of New Orleans

- Wealthy planter & slaveowner, but was born poor

- Hwvr, never lost rough manners of the frontier

• Chewed tobacco

• Fought several duels

• Displayed violent temper

- 1st prez since Washington w/o college education

- Self-made, extraordinary ordinary man

Jackson Presidential Power

- Jackson presented himself as representative of all ppl & protector of common man against abuses of pwr by rich & privileged

- Frugal Jeffersonian, who opposed inc fed spending & wanted to reduce national debt

- vetoed more bills in Cong than all six preceding presidents combined

• Ex. Vetoed use of fed $$ to construct Maysville Road w/c it was wholly within one state, KY, the home state of Jackson's rival, Henry Clay

- Jefferson's closest advisors known as "kitchen cabinet"

• Didn't belong to his official cabinet

• b/c of them, the appt cabinet had less influence on policy than earlier presidents

Peggy Eaton Affair

- Wife of Jackson's secretary of war (Peggy) -> target of malicious gossip by other cabinet wives, much as Jackson's recently deceased wife had been in the 1828 campaign

- When Jackson tried to force the cabinet wives to accept Peggy Eaton socially, most of cabinet resigned

- This controversy contributed to resignation of Jackson's VP, John C. Calhoun, a year later

- For remaining loyal during crisis, Martin Van Buren of NY chosen as VP for Jackson's 2nd term

Indian Removal Act CONTEXT

Jacksons view of democracy didn’t include the natives and believed that they were inferior to whites and wanted their land

Indian Removal Act IMPACT

pushed american indians westward and moved them out of their OG land and trail of tears

Trail of Tears

named because of the devastating impact of the journey, which resulted in the deaths of thousands of people due to harsh conditions like starvation, disease, and exhaustion

Nullification Crisis CONTEXT

- Jackson favored states' rights, but not disunion

- 1828-> SC legislature declared increased tariff of 1828 (Tariff of Abominations) to be unconstitutional

- In during so, it affirmed theory advanced by Jackson's 1st VP, Calhoun

- According to "nullification theory"-> each state had right to decide whether to obey fed law of to declare it null/void (of no effect)

- Following Webster-Hayne debate, Jackson declared his own position: "Our federal Union must be preserved"

- 1832-> Calhoun's SC inc tensions by holding special convention to nullify both hated 1828 tariff & new tariff of 1832

• Convention passed resolution forbidding collection of tariffs within state

Nullification Crisis JACKSON’S REACTION

• Jackson's reaction:

• told secretary of war to prepare military

• persuaded Cong to pass Force Bill

  • gave him authority to act against SC

• issued Proclamation to the People of South Carolina

• Stated nullification & disunion = treason

- But fed troops didn't march in this crisis

- Jackson opened door for compromise by suggesting that Cong lower the tariff

- SC postponed nullification & later formally rescinded it after Cong enacted new tariff along lines suggested by prez + some adjustments to appeal to Northern industrialists

Bank Veto

- Another major issue of Jackson's presidency = rechartering of Bank of the US

- Although bank & branches privately owned, it received fed deposits & attempted to serve public purpose by cushioning the ups & downs of national economy

- Bank's prez, Nicholas Biddle, managed it effectively

• His arrogance, hwvr, contributed to popular suspicion that bank abused its pwrs & served interests of only the wealthy

• Jackson shared in suspicion & believed bank = unconstitutional

- Henry Clay, Jackson's chief political opponent, favored bank

• 1832 (election yr)-> Clay challenged Jackson by persuading majority in Cong to pass bank recharter bill

• Jackson promptly vetoed it, denouncing bank as priv monopoly that enriched wealthy & foreigners at expense of common ppl & "hydra corruption"

• Voters unexpectedly backed Jackson, who won reelection w/ more than 3/4 electoral vote

Jackson’s Second Term Overview

Jackson moved to destroy Bank of US

• Pet Banks

• Specie Circular

Pet Banks

- Jackson attacked bank by withdrawing all fed funds

- Aided by Sec of Treasury Roger Taney, he transferred funds to various state banks (Jackson's critics called "pet banks")

Election of 1836

- Jackson followed 2 term tradition (didn't seek 3rd term)

- To make sure his policies were carried out even in retirement -> Jackson persuaded Dem party to nominate loyal VP, Van Buren (master of practical politics)

- Fearing defeat, Whig Party adopted unusual strategy of nominating 3 candidates from 3 diff regions

• Whigs hoped to throw election into House of Reps, where each state had one vote in selection of prez

- Whig strategy failed, & Van Buren took 58% of electoral vote

Democrat Leaders

- Andrew Jackson

- Martin VanBuren

- James K. Polk

Supporters of Democrats

- small business owners (merchants)

- workers in Northeast

- Southern planters who were suspicious of Northern industrial growth

- westerners, usually of southern roots, who favored predominantly agrarian economy & opposed development of pwrful institutions in their region

- tended to be ppl of modest means, the middle class, & lower middle class

- support from immigrants groups, particularly Irish & German Catholics

- Catholics resented such Whiggish reform movements as temperance, public education, & enforced Sabbath observance, seeing them as attempts to impose Protestant moral standards onto them

Democratic View of Federal Gov’t

should be limited in power and rights of states should be protected and the government should be for the people

Democratic View on Material Progress & Modernization

- believed in necessity of material progress but suspicious of proposals for stimulating modern commercial & industrial growth

• associated such growth w/ commercial creation of menacing institutions, ex. Bank of US

- suspicious of tech advances, e.g. railroads, telegraphs, manufacturing machinery

- opposed modernizing institutions ex. chartered banks & corporations, state-supported internal improvements, even public schools

Democratic View on Territorial Expansion

favored territorial expansion which would widen opportunities for Amers

Whig Leaders

- Henry Clay

- John C. Calhoun

Whig Supporters

- substantial merchants & manufacturers of the Northeast

- wealthier planters of the South, those who favored commercial development & the strengthening of ties w/ North

- ambitious farmers & rising commercial class of West, usually migrants from the Northeast who advocated internal improvements, expanding trade, & rapid economic progress

- tended to be wealthier than Dems, have more aristocratic backgrounds, & very more commercially ambitious

- supported by evangelical Protestants who embraced religious & cultural outlook that encouraged constant development & improvement

- saw new immigrant communities as threat to progress, believing these groups needed to be taught “American” ways

Whiggish View on Fed Gov’t

Federal government power should be spread out rather then consolidated

Whiggish View on Material Progress & Modernization

- embraced material progress

- supported tech advances such as railroads, telegraphs, & manufacturing machinery

- supported modernization

- attributed value to the enterprising, modernizing forces in society → the entrepreneurs & institutions that most effectively promoted growth

- favored measure to est banks & charter corporations

- vision of nation rising to world greatness as commercial & manufacturing pwr

Whiggish View on Territorial Expansion

Urged prudent & cautious movement into West, fearful that too rapid territorial growth would produce instability

What political party did Jefferson lead after defeating Adams?

The Jeffersonian Republican Party

What was the Jeffersonian Republicans' interpretation of the Constitution?

They had a strict interpretation and opposed a powerful federal government.

What did Jefferson believe about the role of states in governance?

He believed states should handle their own affairs without a strong central government.

What was a key fear of the Democratic-Republicans regarding government power?

They feared a strong central government could lead to tyranny over the states.

What stance did the Federalists take regarding the military?

They supported a large military for national security and order.

What was Jefferson's view on religious freedom in relation to government power?

He feared that a strong federal government could suppress religious freedom.

What was the purpose of the Embargo Act implemented by Jefferson?

To avoid military action and foreign conflict and stay neutral

What was the outcome of the Embargo Act?

It led to significant problems with the Barbary states and increased piracy.

How did Jefferson's views on the Constitution evolve over time?

He supported a more elastic interpretation to adapt to the country's growth.

How did the Democratic-Republicans approach bills not explicitly stated in the Constitution?

They tended to veto any such bills, viewing them as unconstitutional.

What did Jefferson imply about the Constitution as the nation expanded?

He implied that the Constitution would need to evolve to address new issues.

What did the Federalists believe was necessary for the country's order?

A powerful and unified central government.

What did the Democratic-Republicans fear about large standing armies?

They feared they could lead to oppression and rebellion.

What was the relationship between the Federalists and the economy?

They believed a strong central government could effectively manage economic issues.

What did Jefferson's conversations with ministers reveal about his governance philosophy?

He believed in keeping government out of religious affairs.

What was Economic Growth?

Industrialization and the transportation revolution were a considerable force in American history, changing the character of life in America by facilitation westward expansion, and urbanization. This period was distinguished by the establishment of factories and the creation of many new inventions to save time, improve transportation and communication, and increase productivity.

What was the Transportation Revolution?

The transportation revolution was the period in which steam power, railroads, canals, roads, bridges, and clipper ships emerged as new forms of transportation, beginning in the 1830s. This allowed Americans to travel across the country and transport goods into new markets that weren’t previously available.

What was the Erie Canal?

the first major canal project America, was built by New York beginning 1817. Stretching 363 miles from Albany to Buffalo, it was longest canal in western world at the time. It was a symbol of progress when it was opened in 1825, and it later sparked artistic interest in the Hudson River when its use peaked in the 1880s.

What was the National Road (Cumberland Road)?

highway across America. Construction began in 1811; the road progressed west during early 1800s, advancing father west with each year. Its crushed-stone surface helped and encouraged many settlers to travel into the frontier west.

Who was Robert Fulton?

artist turned inventor. In 1807, he and his partner, Robert Livingston, introduced a steamship, the Clermont, on the Hudson River and obtained a monopoly on ferry service there until 1824. Steamships created an efficient means of transporting goods upstream, and this led to an increase in the building of canals.

What were Clipper ships?

sailing ships built for great speed. The first true clipper ship, the Rainbow, was designed by John W. Griffiths, launched in 1845, but this was modeled after earlier ships developed on the Chesapeake Bay. During the Gold Rush, from 1849 to 1857, clipper ships were a popular means to travel to California quickly.

Who was Samuel Slater?

supervisor of machinery in a textile factory in England. He left England illegally in 1790 to come to Rhode Island, where, in 1793, he founded the first permanent mill in America for spinning cotton into yarn. In doing this, Slater founded the cotton textile industry in America

What were factory girls?

were young, unmarried women, usually between 15 and 30 years old, working in textile factories such as the Lowell factory. Most of these girls left their families’ farms in order to gain independence or to help their families financially. In the factories, they found poor working conditions and strict discipline.

Who was Elias Howe?

invented the sewing machine in 1845 and patented it in 1846. After a difficult battle defending his patent, he made a fortune on his invention. The sewing machine allowed clothing to be stitched in factories very quickly, contributing to the transition from handmade garments to inexpensive, mass-produced clothing.

Who was Eli Whitney? And what were interchangeable parts?

inventor who introduced the concept of interchangeable parts in 1798. The tools and machines he invented allowed unskilled workers to build absolutely uniform parts for guns, so that the whole gun no longer had to be replaced if a single part malfunctioned or broke. This was the beginning of mass production

Who was Cyrus McCormick/ what was the mechanical reaper?

inventor who improved upon previous designs for the mechanical reaper. He patented his reaper in 1834 and built a factory to mass produce it in 1847. This invention lessened the work of western farmers by mechanizing the process of harvesting wheat.

Who was Samuel FB Morse?

invented the telegraph in 1844. This invention was enthusiastically accepted by the American people; telegraph companies were formed and lines erected quickly. The telegraph allowed rapid communication across great distances, usually transmitting political and commercial messages.

What was the Antebellum Reform?

Americans after 1815 embraced many religious and social movements in pursuit of solutions for the problems, evils, and misfortunes of mankind. These movements were generally more active in the Northern states.

Who was Charles G. Finley?

Known as the "father of modern revivalism," he was a pioneer of cooperation among Protestant denominations. He believed that conversions were human creations instead of the divine works of God, and that people’s destinies were in their own hands. His "Social Gospel" offered salvation to all.

Who were the Mormons/Brigham Young?

Joseph Smith organized the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints after receiving "Sacred writings" in New York Unpopular because of their polygamy, they moved to Missouri, then to Nauvoo, Illinois. They were then led to the Great Salt Lake by Brigham young after Smith was killed.

What were Brook Farm, New Harmony, Oneida, and the Amanda Communities?

Attempting to improve man’s life during industrialism, these cooperative communities, known as Utopian communities, were formed. These communities often condemned social isolation, religion, marriage, the institution of private property.

Who was Dorothea Dix?

In 1843, after discovering the maltreatment of the insane in 1841, presented a memorial to the state legislature which described the abhor conditions in which the insane were kept. She, along with help from Horace Mann and Samuel G. Howe, led the fight for asylums and more humane treatment for the insane.

What was public education and who was the key reformer?

The most influential of reformers, Man became the secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. For the next ten years, Mann promoted a wholistic change in public education. Mann wanted to put the burden of cost on the state, grade the schools, standardize textbooks, and compel attendance.

What was the American Temperance Union?

The first national temperance organization, it was created by evangelical Protestants. Created in 1826, they followed Lyman Beecher in demanding total abstinence from alcohol. They denounced the evil of drinking and promoted the expulsion of drinkers from church.

What was the Irish German Immigration?

In this single decade, the largest immigration proportionate to the American population occurred. The Irish was the largest source of immigration with the German immigrants ranking second in number. This spurred new sentiment for nativism and a new anti-Catholic fervor.

What is Nativism?

The Irish immigration surge during the second quarter of the nineteenth century revived anti-Catholic fever .Extremely anti-Catholic, in 1835 Morse warned that the governments of Europe were filling the US with Catholic immigrants as part of a conspiracy to undermine and destroy republican institutions.

What were women’s rights?

Women could not vote and if married, they had no right to own property or retain their own earnings. They were also discriminated in the areas of education and employment, not receiving the opportunities that men possessed. This encouraged the development of educational institutions for women.

What was prison reform?

Prison were meant to rehabilitate as well as punish. The Auburn System allowed prisoners to work together but never make contact and remain confined at night in a windowless cell. The Pennsylvania system made each prisoner spend of his/her time in a single cell with no outside contact.

Who were transcendentalists? 

a group of 19th-century American thinkers, writers, and artists, primarily from New England, who believed in the power of individual intuition and experience over reason and logic. key reformers: Key figures included Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Margaret Fuller

Who was Henry David thoreau? 

American author, naturalist, philosopher, and abolitionist, best known for his book Walden, which chronicles his experiment in simple living at Walden Pond, and his essay "Civil Disobedience," which advocated for peacefully resisting unjust laws

What was abolishinism?

the social and political movement to end slavery and the slave trade, advocating for the immediate emancipation of enslaved people

what was the temperance movement?

social and political campaign prominent in the 19th and early 20th centuries that advocated for the reduction or complete prohibition of alcohol consumption