AP Biology - Evolution Chapter 22-26

For all my AP Bio takers...

Evolution

The Change over a period of time

Charles Darwin and the Origin of the Species

Came up with the phrase “Descent with Modification.’

Sedimentary Rock

Fossils end up sediments and can be used for relative dating.

Artificial Selection

Humans choose specific characteristics to breed.

Homology

Similar characteristics in related organisms due to common ancestors

Anatomical Homology

Physical structures like the forelimb that are common to multiple organisms.

Vestigial Structures

Structures with little to no use in an organism in the present day. It had some use in the past.

Embryological Homology

Common ancestry by looking at forms of the embryo. The more similar the embryos, the closer related the 2 organisms are.

Molecular Homology

Similarities in the sequences of DNA/Amino Acids. The more similar the DNA, the more similar the organisms are.

Biogeography

The distribution of species on the planet.

Endemic Species

Species that are only discovered in specific locations.

Genepool

All of the genes and alleles in a population

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

A set of conditions where evolution won’t occur:

1) No Sexual selection

2) No Natural Selection

3) Infinitely large population

4) No Migration

5) No Mutations

Microevolution

Change in the frequency of alleles over a period of time due to chance

Hardy-Weinberg Equations

p + q = 1

p²+2pq + q² = 1

Bottleneck Effect

Something, like a disaster, that causes some animals with a specific trait to survive over others by chance.

Founder Effect

A small group finds a new location to inhabit.

Adaptation

A trait that increases survival/reproduction rates

Fitness

The number of offspring an organism produces.

Gene Flow

New alleles entering/exiting a population based on migration

Mutation

A change in the genetic material/DNA. It does not have a major impact on humans but does have a bigger effect on bacteria.

Polymorphism

2 or more versions of a characteristic

Balanced

Nature can sustain different versions of a characteristic

1) Hetero zygote Advantage

2) The more common a characteristic becomes, the more it will be selected against

3) Nature doesn’t select for or against the allele (like blood type)

Directional Selection

One of the extremes of the curve is more successful than the average and other extrema.

Disruptive/Diversifying Selection

The fitness of the average declines and the extremes increase. This leads to speciation.

Stabilizing Selection

The environment doesn’t change and the average continues to be the most fit.

Sexual Selection

Animals choose their mates

Intrasexual Selection

The males compete for the rights to a female. Competition meaning showing off because fighting is not viable as it reduces the fitness of both parties.

Intersexual Selection

Female chooses the mate.

Coevolution

2 species are dependent on each other for survival and they evolve together

Cryptic Appearance

Camouflage (industrial melanism)

Warning Coloration

Bright colors to signify an animal is poisonous

Mimicry

Species that mimic other species

Batesian Mimicry

Something not dangerous imitating something that is

Mullerian Mimicry

2 or more venomous species mimic each other.

Species

Animals grouped based on fertility/the ability of them to reproduce and produce fertile offspring.

Population

A group of organisms in a specific area

Deme

A localized population. The organisms usually stay and mate within their group

Related Demes

Populations that have the ability to go to each other.

Climal Variation

Change in characteristics based on geography.

Subspecies

Species that can mate with each other but usually don’t because they are characteristically different and it prevents them from being attracted to each other.

Reproductive isolation

Prevents species from reproducing successfully.

Prezygotic Barriers

Prevents the actual mating from even occuring.

Postzygotic Barriers

Mating has happened and the hybrid is born but not viable or not fertile.

Habitat isolation

Prevents any concern of physical mating because they are located in different places.

Behavorial Isolation

No interest in the courtship rituals of the other.

Temporal Isolation

Different Mating Seasons

Mechanical Isolation

Difference in genitalia or stamen/pistil of a flower

Gametic Isolation

Sperm can’t fertilize the egg or the gametes don’t fuse

Reduced Hybrid Viability

The hybrid does not last long and does not survive to reproductive age

Reduced hybrid fertility

The hybrid does reach reproductive years but cannot make eggs or spern

Hybrid Breakdown

The offspring of the hybrid have reduced fertility/viability

Speciation

The formation of a new species

Sympatric Speciation

A new species from in the same location as the original species

Character Displacement

When a species starts to differentiate itself physically.

Allopatric Speciation

New species arise that has been geographically separated from the original population.

Polyploidy

Multiple sets of chromosomes (Usually found in plants)

Autopolyploidy

Greater sets of chromosomes from within the same species.

Hybrid Zone

A region in which members of different species meet and mate, producing at least some offspring of mixed ancestry.

Allopolyploidy

Separate species with polyploidy mate and produce a zygote with polyploidy.

Reinforcement

The continuation of hybridization

Fusion

When the hybrid species is more successful and the original species fuses

Anagenesis

One species form a new species that is more successful than the original.

Cladogenesis

New species branch off but the original one still exists.

Adaptive Radiation

A lot of speciation from a single species in a relatively short period of time due to the founder effect and bottleneck effect.

Gradualism

Evolution happens slowly over time

Punctuated Equilibrium

Things stay the same for long periods of time and then quickly change. For example, fossils in rocks are suddenly lost and new species arise (quick changes)

Divergent Evolution

There is a common ancestor and new species branch off from it.

Convergent Evolution

Species that appear or behave similarly to each other

Analogous Structures

Structures not from common ancestors but have the same appearance/function.

Exaptation

A feature that was produced by natural selection for a function other than the one it currently performs and was then co-opted for its current function.

For example, wings developed in birds to match their hollow bones

Oparin and Haldane

The Earth is different from when life began which is the reason why we don’t see life being created today. The current atmosphere is oxidizing and attacking bonds which is not suitable for creating life.

Miller and Urey

An attempt to create the conditions for the origin and life. They were able to produce amino acids and organic monomers.

Hydrothermal vents

Openings on the ocean floor that release hot, mineral-rich fluids.

Alkaline Vents

Openings on the ocean floor that release hot, mineral-rich fluids but at a higher pH level.

Protocells

A self-organized, spherical structure considered a rudimentary precursor to living cells

Relative dating

Approximating the age of a fossil using sedimentary rock.

Stromatalites

Fossilized bacteria (also one of the older that we have found)

Absolute Dating

Using half-life (half of the atoms of a radioactive isotope to decay into a more stable isotope form)

Radiometric Dating

Uses elements like C-14 and U-238

Tectonic plates

Pieces of crust that move along the mantel

Continental Drift

The moving tectonic plates cause the continents to move slowly. It also formed Pangaea.

Permian Mass Extinction

Greatest mass extinction event. Resulted from the formation of Pangaea and led to the Mesozoic Era. 81% of sea animals and 70% of land animals disappeared.

Cretaceous Mass Extinction

The end of dinosaurs and large tetrapods

Evo Devo

Small genetic changes cause large changes in morphology. Compares different developmental processes.

Heterochrony

Changes in rate and timing of change that can cause huge morphological changes

Paedomorphosis

Reproductive organs develop to majority before the rest of the organs.

Phylogenics

The evolutionary history of a species

Binomial Nomenclature

2 word name classification (Panthera Pardue)

Hierarchical Classification

A system of grouping based off of hierarchy

Taxon

The name that is assigned to the group at any level (family, genus, etc)

Branch point

When a common ancestor diverges and splits into new species.

Cladistics

Classifying based on phylogeny and is always based on a common ancestor

Monphyletic/True Clade

Ancestor and all of it’s descendants, whether living or extince

Paraphyletic

The ancestor and some but not all of it’s descedants

Polyphyletic

Multiple descendants but no common ancestor

Shared ancestral Character

Characteristics that evolved in an ancestor but also includes other descendants as well (shared outside of the clade)

Shared Derived character

Characteristics unique to the Clade

Maximum Parsimony

Fewest amount of changes that occur before the division of species. It is the simplest and least amount of mutations that would lead to the final result.

Maximum Likelihood

Most likely steps (not the least amount of steps)