bio 315 lecture exam 1 study guide

How is the body organized with respect to cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems?

Cells and their functional subunits or organelles that perform specific cell functions make up the tissue level which is a group of cells working together to perform a common function. Tissues make up organs which are discrete structures made of up more than one tissue. Such organs then make organ systems which are organs working together for a common purpose.

What is a cell

It is the basic, structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms.

What are primary tissues

Epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscle. They work together through specialized cells to provide covering, support, movement, and communication.

what is an organ

a discrete structure made up of more than one tissue. It is a collection of different types of tissues joined together in a structural unit to perform a specific, vital function.

what is an organ system

Organs working together for a common purpose. It is a group of physical parts that work together to complete a common job for the body.

What is a pluripotent stem cell

It is a cell that can divide endlessly and turn into almost any type of cell in the body aside from the placenta. They are specifically embryonic stem cells and are unspecialized cells that can divide indefinitely and turn into almost any cell.

What are the four primary tissues

Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous

What are the basic functions of epithelial tissue

Protection, absorption, secretion, filtration, forms slippery surfaces

What are the basic functions of connective tissue

To Support, connect, and protect other tissues and organs in the body

What are the basic functions of muscle tissue

Movement, posture and stability, generate muscle tension

What makes up the axial region of the body

Head, neck, and trunk

what makes up the appendicular region

limbs

what are the different body cavities

dorsal and ventral cavities

what organs are in the dorsal body cavity

Brain and spinal cord

what organs are in the ventral body cavity

organs in the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity

What is the visceral serous membrane

It is the layer of serous membrane that wraps directly around and adheres to internal organs within the body’s ventral cavities

What is the parietal serous membrane

It is the outer layer of a serous membrane that lines the inner walls of closed body cavities. It attaches to and covers the walls of body cavities

What is the function of the visceral serous membrane

It protects the internal organs and reduces friction as they move. The membrane secretes a slippery, watery serious fluid into the space between the organ and body wall that allows the organ to glide smoothly during movement.

what is the function of the parietal serous membrane

It secretes a lubricating serious fluid that reduces friction. It anchors organs within the body alongs with forming a tough boundary that shields the internal organ from surrounding tissue and trauma.

what is dorsal or posterior

towards the back

what is ventral or anterior

towards the front

what is superior

towards the head

what is inferior

towards the feet

what is medial

towards the middle

what is lateral

away from middle

what is intermediate

in between medial and lateral

what is proximal

closer to point of attachment

what is distal

farther from point of attachment

what is superficial

towards surface

what is deep

away from surface

what is the coronal (frontal) plane

divides the body front and back (ventral and dorsal)

what is median (midsagittal) plane

divides the body left and right

what is transverse plane

divides the body superior and inferior

what are the steps necessary to prepare tissue for microscopic viewing

1) fixation

2) sectioned using microtome

3) stained

What chemical fixatives are used for light microscopy

formalin (formaldehyde and alcoho)

What chemical fixatives are used for electron microscopy

paraformaldehyde and glutaraldehyde

what is an acidic stain

Negatively charged dye molecules that bind to positive charges in tissue (proteins)

what is a basic stain

Positively charged dye molecules that bind to negative charges (nuclei)

what is the difference between light and electron microscopy

Light microscopy illuminates tissue with a beam of light where electron microscopy uses beams of electrons

How do hematoxylin and eosin bind to the tissues

Hematoxylin is a basic stain, which presents blue in color, and it colors negatively charged tissues whereas eosin is an acidic stain and presents as pink in color, so it colors proteins or other positively charged tissues.

How do X rays produce images of the body

It passes electromagnetic waves of very short lengths throughout tissues in order to create a shadow map based on density. Dense structures show up as white areas where less dense areas are black.

How do computed axial tomography (CT or CAT) scans produce images of the body

CAT scans use the same imaging technique as typical x rays do, however, cat scans take successive x rays around a persons full circumference and the images are viewed in the transverse plane which makes it easier to identify soft tissues that are nearby each other.

How do positron emission tomography (PET) scans produce images of the body

They produce images by tracking how active cells and tissues absorb a safe radioactive chemical substance. The radioactive isotope is injected into the body and isotopes are generally incorporated into sugars which accumulate in metabolically active tissues.

How do magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans produce images of the body

They produce images by using a powerful magnetic field and radio waves to interact with hydrogen atoms in the tissues. The magnets alter the spin of hydrogen atoms and when they are shut off, radio waves emitted by the atoms are detected and used to form images. Most high quality images of soft tissues.

How do sonography scans produce images of the body

They send high-frequency sound waves into the tissue and measure the returning echoes. The images are not as high resolution but a cheap method.

What are the three components of a typical cell

Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus

what are the components of the plasma membrane

Phospholipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol

What is the structure of the plasma membrane

It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol interspersed throughout. The membrane consists of the phospholipids facing opposite directions, with the tails interacting with other tails and the heads interacting with the extracellular fluid. The carbohydrates are attached to membrane proteins, cholesterol is dispersed throughout the membrane, and proteins are either integrated in the membrane or attached to it.

what are the two types of membrane proteins

integral proteins and peripheral proteins

what are integral proteins

Proteins that are firmly imbedded in the lipid bilayer

what are peripheral proteins

proteins that attach to the membrane surface, mainly on the inner portion of the bilayer

what are glycoproteins

they are proteins with short carbohydrate chains covalently attached to them so that the sugar groups face the outside of the cell. They can be either integral or peripheral proteins.

what are the components of the cytoplasm

cytosol and organelles

what is the structure of the cytoplasm

It is the jelly like material that fills the inside of the cell. The organelles are suspended inside the cytosol.

What is the structure of the nucleus

It is a large, membrane bound organelle that stores genetic material and acts as the control center. It has a double membrane that separates the inside of the nucleus from the cytoplasm.

What are the primary functions of the nucleus

store, protect, and manage the cell’s genetic material

what are the primary functions of the rough ER

Synthesis of proteins to be secreted out of the cell

what are the primary functions of the smooth ER

lipid (fat synthesis), detoxifying enzymes, calcium storage

what are the primary functions of the golgi apparatus

It modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport to different locations inside or outside the cell.

what are the primary functions of lysosomes

They digest unwanted substances (intra and extracellular). the recycling center of the cell, breaking down waste materials, foreign invaders.

what are the primary functions of peroxisomes

It is the breakdown of fatty acids through oxidation and detoxification of harmful substances. It protects the cell and breaks down long chains of fatty acids, amino acids, and toxins

What are the components of the cytoskeleton

Microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments

How is the plasma membrane organized according to the fluid-mosaic model of cell

membranes?

It is a flexible double layer of lipids embedded with proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates. The outer part is the water loving heads of the phospholipids and the middle is the water fearing tails that point toward each other. Proteins are dispered throughout the layer or placed on the surfaces. The cholesterol is tucked inside and sits next to the lipid tails. Carbohydrates are attached to proteins on the surface and acts as a name tag so cells can identify each other.

What are the primary differences between phagocytosis and pinocytosis?

They are both forms of endocytosis, which is a mechanism by which molecules or particles are not able to pass through membranes. Phagocytosis is “cell eating” and occurs to larger particles. Pinocytosis is “cell drinking” and happens to smaller particles. Phagocytosis engulfs large, solid particles while pinocytosis is the intake of extracellular fluids and dissolved small particles

What are the steps involved in exocytosis

1) substance is enclosed in secretory vesicle

2) vesicle migrates to plasma membrane

3) proteins from the vesicles bind with membrane proteins

4) lipid layers from both membranes bind and the vesicle releases its contents to the outside of the cell

Simple squamous morphology

single layer of flat cells with disc shaped nuclei

Simple cuboidal morphology

Single layer of cube like cells with large, spherical central nuclei

Simple columnar morphology

single layer of column-shaped cells with centrally located oval nuclei

Pseudostratified columnar morphology

both tall and short columnar cells

• all originate at basement membrane

• always simple

stratified squamous morphology

many layers, flat in shape at apical surface

Stratified cuboidal morphology

two layers of cube shaped cells

stratified columnar morphology

several layers; basal cells usually cuboidal, superficial cells elongated

transitional epithelium morphology

basal cells usually cuboidal or columnar, superficial cells dome shaped

What are the differences between microvilli and cilia?

Microvilli are finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane that maximize surface area for absorption. Cilia are whip like hair structures that are designated for movement across the apical surface membranes

How is a cilium organized?

Cilium contains a core of 9 pairs of microtubules in one middle pair (doublet) They have dynein arms that interconnect between the doublets that allow for bending. the microtubules are arranged similarly to cytoplasmic centrioles

What is the basal lamina

It is a non-cellular supporting sheet between the epithelium and the connective tissue deep to it. It is a specialized layer of extracellular matrix. If there is no basal lamina, epithelial cells will not grow

What is a tight junction

They close off intercellular space. Interlocking proteins in membranes of two cells line up oppositely at the top of the cell. They are specialized connections between neighboring cells that form a watertight, impermeable seal to block fluid and molecules from passing through the space between cells.

What is a desmosome

Two disc-like plaques connected across intercellular space by protein chains

what is a gap junction

passageway between two adjacent cells that forms pores. it allows small molecules to move direction between neighboring cells. It directly links the cytoplasm of adjacent cells, allowing certain things to pass freely between them

What is the difference between simple and compound exocrine glands

Simple glands only have a single duct where compound glands have branching of ducts

Simple tubular

Simple branched tubular

simple alveolar

simple branched alveolar

compound tubular

Compound alveolar

Compound tubuloalveolar

What is the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands?

Exocrine glands carry the products of the glands to the epithelial surface whereas endocrine glands secrete substances directly into the bloodstream

What are the three features that are common to all types of connective tissue, except for blood?

1) cells are separated by large amounts of extracellular matrix that contains protein fibers

2) specialized cells that maintain the tissue rather than being tightly packed surface layers

3) Share a common embryonic origin: mesenchyme cell

what are the three types of loose connective tissue

areolar, adipose, reticular

what are three functions of areolar connective tissue

it is the main battlefield in fight against infection, it wraps and cushions organs, it holds and conveys tissue fluid, plays important role in inflammation

What cell type is responsible for producing the extracellular matrix and protein fibers of areolar connective tissues

Fibroblasts

What is the role of areolar connective tissue in fighting invading pathogens

The protector cells gather in loose connective tissue and they gather in the areolar C.T at sites of infection. Since it is located directly below epithelial layers, it is the first line of cellular defense when the outer protective barrier is breached

What cells are involved in areolar connective tissue fighting invading pathogens

Macrophages: phagocytosis

Plasma cells: antibodies

Mast cells: histamine

Neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils: all protect against pathogens

What are the different types of cartilage

Hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage

What does hyaline cartilage look like microscopically

The chondrocyte cells are floating in the extracellular matrix while being surrounded by lacuna. Protein fibers are not visible

What does elastic cartilage look like microscopically

The protein fibers are visible but go in random directions, but the chondrocytes are still just in the extracellular matrix surrounded by lacunae

What does hyaline cartilage look like microscopically

The fibers are not visible. The chondrocytes are in the extracellular matrix surrounded by lacunae

Where is hyaline cartilage found

costal cartilages

Where is elastic cartilage found

the ear