PSYCH 243 MIDTERM #1 PT. 3

What is a cross-sectional design?

Compares different groups of people of different ages at one point in time.

Advantages:

• Fast

• Relatively inexpensive

• No participant attrition from repeated testing

Disadvantages:

• Cannot track individual developmental change

• Vulnerable to cohort effects

What is a longitudinal design?

Study the same people repeatedly over time.

+ shows individual developmental change
− slow, expensive, attrition, practice effects

Memory: Longitudinal = long time

What is a cohort?

A group of people born around a similar historical period who therefore share certain historical experiences.

What is a cohort effect?

An apparent age difference that is actually caused by different historical/generational experiences, not age itself.

Example: Older adults performing differently on technology tasks may reflect different experience with technology rather than aging itself.

What is a cohort-sequential design?

Follows multiple age cohorts over time, combining cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches.

+ helps detect cohort effects
− still expensive, lengthy and vulnerable to attrition

What is a microgenetic design?

 type of longitudinal design that measures the same people very frequently over a relatively short period while developmental change is occurring.

Best for: Seeing the actual process of change as it happens.

Disadvantage: itme-consuming, Expensive, Participant attrition, Practice effects

: MICRO = zoom in on change

What is a measurement-burst design?

Uses short bursts of frequent measurements separated by longer periods of time.

Ad: vantages Improves precision, Captures short-term/moment-to-moment changes

disadvantages:
time consuming, Expensive, Participant attrition, Practice effects from , repeated testing

What is genotype?

Your genetic makeup/endowment — the genes you inherited.

Memory: Geno = genes

What is phenotype?

Your observable physical and psychological characteristics.

Memory: Pheno = what shows

Genotype vs. phenotype?

Genotype = genes you have
Phenotype = traits you show

What do behaviour geneticists study?

How genes and environment contribute to differences between individuals.

 this concerns inter-individual differences, not development itself.

What are the two main ways of studying genes vs. environment?

Twin studies: vary genetic similarity while examining environmental effects.

• Adoption studies: compare genetically related vs. environmentally related people.

What is the basic logic behind twin/adoption studies?

If people who are more genetically similar are also more similar on a trait, this suggests a genetic contribution to that trait.

What is heritability?

The extent to which differences in a trait within a particular population are associated with genetic differences between individuals.

What is important to remember about heritability?

It:

• applies to a population, not an individual

• depends on the specific environment/time

• does NOT mean a trait cannot be changed by the environment

Example: A trait can be highly heritable while still being affected by environmental conditions.

What is a gene–environment correlation?

 The idea that a person’s genetically influenced characteristics can affect the environments they experience.

There are three types:

1. Passive

2. Evocative

3. Active

What is passive gene–environment correlation?

Parents provide their children with both genes AND an environment related to the parents’ characteristics.

Example: Musically talented parents may:

• Pass along genes related to musical ability

• Provide instruments/music exposure at home

The child doesn’t actively choose either.

What is evocative gene–environment correlation?

A person’s genetically influenced characteristics evoke particular responses from other people.

Example: A naturally sociable child may cause adults and peers to interact with them more.

What is active gene–environment correlation?

People seek environments that fit their genetically influenced characteristics.

Example: Athletic child chooses sports.

Memory: Active = I choose it

What is epigenetics?

The study of processes that affect gene expression without changing the underlying DNA sequence.

Environmental experiences can influence whether particular genes are more or less expressed.

What is epigenetic inheritance?

Transmission across generations of molecular factors affecting how DNA is read and expressed.

The DNA sequence itself does not necessarily change; what can be transmitted are factors affecting gene expression.

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What is epigenesis?

The idea that development results from continuous, two-way interactions between heredity and the environment.

Neither genes nor environment operates completely independently.

What is probabilistic epigenesis?

Development results from ongoing bidirectional interactions among:

Genes ↔ neural activity ↔ behaviour ↔ environment

No single level completely determines development.

Memory: Everything affects everything else over development.

How is heritability determined?

Heritability is estimated by examining how variation in genetic similarity is related to variation in a trait, often using twin and adoption studies.

If people who are more genetically similar are also more similar on the trait, this suggests a greater genetic contribution to differences in that trait.

What are Freud’s key ideas about development?

Freud’s psychosexual theory proposed that:

• Development is strongly influenced by unconscious drives

• Early childhood experiences have an important influence on later personality

• Children progress through 5 psychosexual stages

• At each stage, pleasure/conflict focuses on a different erogenous zone

• Problems resolving a stage can result in fixation

Fixation = unresolved conflict at a psychosexual stage that can continue to influence later personality/behaviour.

What are Freud’s 5 psychosexual stages in order?

1. Oral

2. Anal

3. Phallic

4. Latency

5. Genital

Memory: Oranges Apples Peaches Lychee Grapes

What happens during Freud’s Oral Stage?

Infancy

• Pleasure is focused on the mouth

• Activities include sucking, eating and biting

• The mouth is the major erogenous zone

Memory: Oral = Mouth

What happens during Freud’s Anal Stage?

Toddlerhood

• Pleasure/conflict focuses on bowel control

• Toilet training is the major developmental issue

• Children encounter expectations about controlling bodily functions

• Memory: Anal = Toilet training

What happens during Freud’s Phallic Stage?

Early childhood

• Pleasure becomes focused on the genitals

• Children become interested in differences between males and females

• Identification with the same-sex parent becomes important in Freud’s theory

Memory: Phallic = Genitals

What happens during Freud’s Latency Stage?

Middle childhood

• Sexual impulses become relatively dormant

• Energy is directed toward areas such as:

  • School

  • Friendships

  • Learning skills

Memory: Latency = sexual impulses lie low

What happens during Freud’s Genital Stage?

Adolescence onward

• Sexual interests re-emerge

• Sexual energy becomes directed toward mature relationships

• Represents the final psychosexual stage

Memory: Genital = Mature sexuality/relationships

What is the main difference between Freud and Erikson’s theories?

Freud:

• Psychosexual development

• Emphasized unconscious drives

• Focused heavily on early childhood

• 5 stages

Erikson:

• Psychosocial development

• Emphasized social/cultural experiences

• Development continues through the entire lifespan

• 8 stages