Unit 1: Research Methods – Concepts (Notes)

Vocabulary flashcards covering key research-methods concepts from the lecture notes.

Critical thinking

Making claims or conclusions based on evidence and reasoning rather than guesswork.

Scientific method

A systematic, step-by-step process used to investigate phenomena and test ideas.

Theory

An idea or model explaining observations that has not yet been proven as a fact.

Falsifiability

The quality of a claim that allows it to be tested and potentially shown false.

Hypothesis

A testable educated guess about how variables are related.

Operational definition

A precise, measurable definition of how a variable will be observed or quantified in a study.

Replication

Repeating a study to verify results and increase confidence in findings.

Replication crisis

A situation where many findings cannot be replicated, raising concerns about reliability.

Experimental research methods

Research that involves manipulating variables to determine cause and effect (e.g., lab experiments).

Non-experimental research methods

Research that does not involve manipulating variables (e.g., case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, correlational studies).

Peer review

Evaluation of research by other experts before publication to ensure quality.

Meta-analysis

A statistical analysis that combines results from multiple studies to identify overall patterns.

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms preconceptions.

Hindsight bias

Looking back on an outcome and believing it was inevitable or obvious.

Overconfidence

Excessive confidence in one's judgments or abilities.

Standardized

Procedures or tests administered in a consistent way to all participants.

Experiment

A research procedure that deliberately changes one variable to observe the effect on another.

Experimental group

The group that receives the treatment or manipulation in an experiment.

Control group

The group that does not receive the treatment and serves as a baseline.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to reduce bias and confounds.

Single-blind study

Participants do not know which treatment they are receiving.

Double-blind procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which treatment group.

Placebo

An inactive treatment used as a control in experiments.

Placebo effect

Improvements due to the expectation of benefit rather than the treatment itself.

Placebo group

Group in a study that receives the placebo for comparison.

Independent variable

The manipulated variable that researchers change to observe effects.

Dependent variable

The measured outcome that changes in response to the manipulation of the IV.

Confounding variable

A third variable that can affect results and obscure the true relationship.

Validity

The extent to which results accurately reflect what they are supposed to measure.

Construct

How well a test or measure captures the theoretical concept it aims to assess.

Predictive validity

How well a test forecasts future outcomes.

External validity

The extent to which findings generalize beyond the study sample.

Internal validity

The degree to which a study establishes a cause-and-effect relationship by controlling confounds.

Reliability

Consistency of a measure across time, items, and researchers.

Experimenter bias

Researcher expectations that unintentionally influence study results.

Case study

In-depth study of a single person, group, or event.

Naturalistic observation

Watching subjects in their natural environment without intervention.

Surveys and interviews

Methods to collect self-reported data from participants.

Wording effects

How the phrasing of questions changes participants' responses.

Social desirability bias

Tendency to answer in a way that looks good to others.

Self-report bias

Distortions in participants' own reports of their thoughts or behavior.

Sampling bias

Systematic errors in sampling that produce unrepresentative results.

Third variable

An extra factor that could influence the observed relationship.

Third variable problem

Difficulty establishing causation when a hidden variable could be driving results.

Directionality problem

Uncertainty about which variable influences the other in a relationship.

Illusory correlation

Perceiving a relationship between variables that does not actually exist.

Correlation does not imply causation

A relationship between variables does not prove that one causes the other.

Regression toward the mean

Extreme scores tend to move closer to the average on subsequent measures.

Descriptive statistics

Statistics that summarize data (e.g., mean, median, mode).

Central tendency

The center of a data distribution (mean, median, or mode).

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of numbers.

Median

The middle value in an ordered data set.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Histogram

A bar graph showing the distribution of a variable.

Percentile / percentile rank

A score’s relative position within a distribution (e.g., 90th percentile).

Variation

How much scores differ from one another.

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest values.

Standard deviation

Average distance of scores from the mean.

Normal curve

Bell-shaped distribution representing many natural phenomena.

Skewness

Asymmetry in a distribution; positive skew toward higher values, negative skew toward lower values.

Positive skew

distribution has a few extreme score toward the high end relative to the low end, the mean is usually bigger than the median

Negative skew

A few extreme scores toward the low end relative to high end

Bimodal distribution

Distribution with two distinct peaks or modes.

Generalizability

How well findings apply to broader populations.

Inferential statistics

Statistics used to draw conclusions about populations from samples.

Statistical significance

Likely not due to chance; helps decide whether an effect exists.

Cultural norms / culture

Shared expectations for behavior within a group.

Effect size

Magnitude of the observed effect, indicating practical significance.

Ethical guidelines

Standards for conducting research ethically.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee that reviews research proposals to protect participants' rights.

Informed consent

Voluntary agreement to participate after being fully informed of risks and rights.

Informed assent

Agreement by individuals unable to consent themselves, with guardian consent and participant assent.

Protection from harm

Measures to minimize risk and protect participants in research.

Confidentiality / anonymity

Keeping participants' data private or anonymous.

Deception

Providing misleading information about a study's purpose or procedures.

Confederates

People secretly working with researchers to help the study.

Debriefing

Post-study explanation to participants about the study’s purpose and methods.

Critical thinking

The careful, systematic evaluation of information and claims based on evidence.

Scientific method

A structured process to ask questions, test predictions, collect data, and draw evidence-based conclusions.

Theory

A well-supported explanation or model that describes how something works and can be tested.

Falsifiable / falsifiability

The quality of a claim that can be tested in ways that could prove it false.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction derived from a theory.

Operational definition

A precise, observable, and measurable way to define a variable in a study.

Replication

Repeating a study or experiment to verify results and improve confidence.

Replication crisis

A growing concern that many findings fail to replicate, questioning reliability.

Experimental research methods

Research that manipulates variables to establish cause–effect relationships (e.g., lab experiments).

Non-experimental research methods

Research that does not manipulate variables (e.g., case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, interviews, meta-analysis, correlational studies).

Peer review

Evaluation of research by other experts before publication.

Meta-analysis

Statistical synthesis of results from multiple studies to draw overall conclusions.

Confirmation bias

Tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that confirms preconceptions.

Hindsight bias

Looking back on an outcome as having been predictable after it occurs.

Overconfidence

Overestimating the accuracy of one’s judgments or abilities.

Standardized

Administered and scored under uniform procedures and conditions.

Experiment

A study that manipulates one or more factors to observe effects on another variable.

Experimental group

The group that receives the treatment or manipulation.

Control group

The group that does not receive the treatment; serves as a baseline.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to conditions by chance to create equivalent groups.

Single-blind study

Participants do not know which treatment they receive.

Double-blind procedure

Neither participants nor experimenters know which treatment is given.

Placebo

An inactive treatment used as a control.