Cognitive SAQs

Cognitive processing, ROCP research method p1

true experiment

• highly controlled

• done in a lab or controlled environment

• used to establish c&e relationship between iv and dv

• random allocation to testing conditions

• control group: not given the treatment to ensure results aren’t due to chance

• based on supporting a hypothesis

CP research method, ethics, schema theory P2

Loftus & Palmer

Aim: to investigate how information supplied after an event influences a witnesses’ memory of that event, specifically to investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect the estimation of speed

Sample: 45 students

Procedure:

• sample divided into five groups of nine

• seven films of traffic accidents taken from driver’s ed films were shown, 5-30 seconds (everyone watched all seven)

• asked to give account of accident they had seen

• questionnaire w/ different questions about the accident

• critical question: about how fast were the cars going when they [] each other?

• options: hit, collided, bumped, smash, contacted depending on condition

Results:

• mean estimates of speed were highest in ‘smashed’ condition and lowest in ‘contacted’ condition

• verb consistently affected the participant’s answer to the question

CP research method P3

• Done in a controlled environment (lab-based)

  • Therefore, controlled

  • Higher degree of control over confounding variables (e.g. age, incident viewed, environment) ⇒ these factors did not affect respondent’s answers

• Conditions: 

  • Experimental conditions: based on the verb given

• Used to establish a cause and effect relationship between:

  • INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: intensity of the verb used in the critical question

  • DEPENDENT VARIABLE: estimation of speed

• Participants randomly allocated to conditions (verbs)

• Based on supporting hypothesis (see P2)

Cognitive processing, RoCP ethics p1

Deception

• define deception

• typically used to avoid demand characteristics (define)

• deception by commission (gives false info)

• deception by omission (omits crucial information)

• confederates are often key (define)

CP ethics P3

• deception by omission: not told that researchers were testing the effect of the wording on memory accuracy

• helped reduce demand characteristics (ensured participants didn’t consciously change their responses to what they thought the researchers wanted)

• no confederates used

Working Memory Model P1

• memory: the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

• working memory: cognitive system that has limited capacity and can hold onto info temporarily

• proposed by Baddeley & Hitch

• developed from the MSM to further elaborate on structure of short-term memory

• consists of four different components, each having their own function

  1. central executive: master system responsible for cognitive processing, is responsible for the allocation of resources between the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop

  2. phonological loop: slave system; holds auditory information. can be further divided to the inner ear (holds sounds) and inner voice (turns speech/words into sounds)

  3. visuospatial sketchpad: slave system; holds visual and spatial information

  4. episodic buffer: added later on, integrates information from the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop and links to LT

WMM P2

Landry & Bartling

Aim: to investigate if articulatory suppression would influence recall of a written list of phonologically-similar letters in serial recall

Sample: 34 undergrad psych students

Procedure:

• each participant tested individually

• ten lists each consisting of a serious of seven letters randomly constructed from letters (f, k, l, m, r, x, q) (chosen because they don’t sound similar)

• researcher presented one letter series at a time

• participants received an answer sheet with seven blanks in a row

• participants first saw a list of letters that they had to recall while saying numbers ‘1’ and ‘2’ at a rate of two numbers per second (articulatory suppression task) from the time of the presentation of the list until the time they filled the answer sheet. repeated ten times.

• control group: saw list of letters, did not carry out articulatory suppression task.

• each trial scored for accuracy of recall.

Results:

• scores from experimental group were much lower than control group

• mean % of accurate recall in the control group was 76% compared to an average of 45% in experimental group

WMM P3

This study demonstrates the working memory model because performing dual tasks using the same component cannot be performed successfully together given that the component will become overloaded. (COMPONENT IN THIS CASE = PHONOLOGICAL LOOP - auditory and visual info)
This supports the distinction of STM into four different parts as the function of the central executive, dealing with cognitively demanding tasks, is impaired when under the influence of more than one demanding task.

Multi Store Model P1

• proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin

• way of categorizing memory into separate stores, suggesting it moves in a linear sequence

• suggests that when an individual pays attention to info, this environmental input is encoded (processed so that it can be stored) into the sensory memory store

• it then passes into STM, encoded mainly acoustically

• with rehearsal (personal relevance), it is then transferred to LTM

• sensory memory store = duration: 1/4-1/2 s, capacity = unlimited

• STM = duration: 0-18 seconds, capacity of 7+-2 items

• LTM: unlimited capacity and duration

• to remember info: we retrieve info from LTM into STM where we are able to use it

• serial position effect: individuals remember info at the beginning of the list (primacy effect) and end (recency effect)

• primacy effect → have had time to rehearse and place it into LTM

• recency effect → still present in STM

• middle of sequence → not enough time to be rehearsed and LTM, but displaced by other info later in the sequence

MSM P2

Glanzer & Cunitz

Aim: to investigate whether delay would play a role in what words an individual was able to recall from a list and their positioning

Procedure:

• shown 15 5-word lists on a projector: mono-syllabic, common words displayed for 1 second with 2-second intervals between each, researcher reading them out loud

• shown # on projector → recall by writing words they could remember

• shown 0-9 on projector → count down from that number for either 10 seconds or 30, after which they were told to recall by writing

Results:

• immediate recall condition recalled a majority of words from beginning + end of list

• 10-second delay condition: mainly words from start, few from end

• 30-second delay condition: words from start, least amount of words at the end

MSM P3

• participants who remembered info from the beginnning of the list were able to do so because of the primacy effect: had been rehearsed enough to pass into LTM, with them later retrieving it into STM to be able to recall it

• participants in the immediate-recall and 10-second delay conditions remembered more words from the end of the list because of the recency effect: words were still held in STM. in the 30-second delay condition, they did not remember barely any because the distractor task prevented rehearsal and caused info in STM to be displaced by counting down

• immediate recall condition - no displacement of info, 10-second - partial displacement → reduced recency effect, 30-second - complete displacement → no recency effect

• long-term memory and short-term memory stored in different places

Schema theory P1

• refers to schemas: mental frameworks that organize and interpret knowledge, proposed by Piaget

• two main ways of building up a schema

• assimilation - involves knowledge gained from new experiences to be added to a scheme to further develop it

• accommodation - changing schema because of new information gathered that challenges the original schema

• we build up schemas using knowledge from the world around us (experiences)

• oftentimes, we use these schemas to fill in gaps or missing info in everyday lives

• schemas influence our attention and learning - we notice things that are in line with our schema and filter information based on our schema (more attention to schema-consistent info). while new info fits into schema, it is easier to understand and remember information that links to our prior schema

• often accurate in helping us do this but at times, can lead to memory distortion or a creation of false memories in case things are not in-line with our schema

Schema theory P3

• drastically different verb intensities brought out schemas associated with the word the individual had gathered through previous experiences

• a higher intensity verb evoked a more sever car accident schema, causing the individual to assume the speed was higher based on prior experiences and schema

• showed how schemas can have a major effect on an individual and remember a memory differently when retrieved because of the schema that was evoked - schemas led to memory distortion

• when participants heard the verb choice, they assimilated the question’s wording into their existing accident schema, choosing memory to match implied severity

• participants did not show accommodation because they did not alter their schemas

Theory of thinking and decision making P1

• dual processing model proposed by kahneman

• differentiates between two ways of thinking: fast and slow (system 1 vs system 2)

• intuitive thinking - system 1 : automatic, quick decision made by an individual with little to no hesitation. more efficient, more prone to errors and heuristics (mental shortcuts)

• rational thinking - system 2: slow method that takes much more time but is often far more accurate

• as humans, we often use heuristics in everyday tasks as we are cognitive misers and prefer lower-effort in simple tasks

• system 1 is an example of this and often leads to a phenomenon known as anchoring bias: likelihood of an individual to heavily rely on the first piece of info given (anchor)

• because we are so prone to using heuristics such as this one, we are also mcuh more prone to error.

tip: really make sure you’re doing what the question asks! if it’s asking for intuitive or rational thinking, pick intuitive (so you can talk about anchoring bias) and focus on that throughout your p1

Theory of thinking and decision making / biases, research method RoCP P2

Tversky & Kahneman

Aim: to investigate whether an individual would estimate the answer to a math problem differently based on the first piece of info given

Procedure:

• two groups

• individually asking each participant to solve math problem (8 x … x 1) with a max time of five seconds

• both groups given same equation, one condition was given the equation in ascending order, while the other in descending order

Results:

• participants in the ascending condition had a lower mean estimate: 512

• descending: 2, 250

Theory of thinking and decision making P3

• demonstrates intuitive thinking (system 1) in practice

• participants forced to make a decision in five seconds: the limiting time bringing out their system 1 thinking as their rational thinking would have taken too long to produce an answers

• participants were influenced by the anchor (either one or eight) and their results reflected they were influenced by these numbers, as the lower anchor produced a lower mean estimate and vice versa

• while intuitive thinking was more efficient in this scenario as it is a faster method, this study also shows that s1 is very prone to errors and can oftentimes influence our judgement too heavily, as all participants received the same equation with different anchors and produced significantly different estimates

Reconstructive memory P1

• proposed by bartlett

• suggests that memory is not a passive retrieval of info from LTM, rather an active recreation of an event in the mind everytime it is remembered

• we don’t store complete copies of an event, more so ‘fragments’ and we ‘fill in the gaps’ during recall

• proposed that memory may be changed during storage, processing, and retrieval

• during recall, schemas (define) help reconstruct the memory by providing structure, especially when info is missing or unclear

• memory economizes cognitive resources: not every detail is needed to function in everyday life

• reconstructive memory is usually accurate enough, but can lead to distortions or false memories

Reconstructive memory, ethics RoCP P2

Brewer & Treyens

Aim: to investigate the role of schema in encoding and retrieval of episodic memory

Sample: 86 uni psych students

Procedure:

• participants were seated in a room that was made to look like an office: objects typical of offices (typewriter) and not-typical (skull) and omitted objects (books)

• asked to wait individually and have a seat in the office while the researcher checked to make sure othe rparticipant had completed, no realization that study had begun

• researcher left room and said he would return shortly

• 35 seconds: participants called into another room, asked what they remembered from the office

• RECALL: asked to write down objects they could remember + recognition test (booklet containing objects, how sure were they (1-10))

• DRAWING: given outline of room and asked to draw objects they remembered

• VERBAL RECOGNITION: read a list of objects and simply asked whether they were in the room or not

• When they finished, they were given a questionniare with ‘did u think that u would be asked to remember’

Results:

• RECALL + DRAWING: more likely to remember office schema-congruent, items incongruent with this schema were not often recalled. tended to change nature of objects to match their schema

• VERBAL: more likely to remember incongruent items + had higher rate of identifying objects which were schema-congruent but not in the room

Reconstructive memory P3

• supports theory that memory is reconstructive, not perfect recording

• individuals reconstructed the office based on thier schemas of what an office should contain

• many recalled schema-congruent items that weren’t there (schema-driven false memories)

• many cases: remembered schema-consistent items, distorted or omitted schema-incongruent items, change nature of objects to make them fit the office schema

• VERBAL: falsely recognized schema-consistent items that weren’t there

• shows that schemas influence both encoding and retrieval - memory is shaped by both what we experience and what we expect

• supports idea that memory involves active reconstruction, which can lead to distortions and false memories

RoCP research method p3

• highly controlled environment: individual completion of task, specific time

• random allocation to ascending/descending condition

• IV : order of numbers

• DV: estimated total

• c&e relationship because they manipulated IV

• supports hypothesis about anchor

RoCP ethics p3

• deception by omission:

• helped avoid artificial behavior: demand characteristics, please-you effect

• key in preserving ecological validity and ensuring unbiased recall

Flashbulb memory p1

• proposed by brown & kulik

• special sort of emotional memory triggered by events that stand out due to their shocking, unexpected, dramatic or unusual nature

• thought to be more vivid, detailed, long-lasting, meaningful than everyday memories

• formed through episodic memories (winning a race) and witnessing/hearing about global event (9/11) - either indirect or direct experience

• B&K suggested that FBMs are so emotionally important to someone they are captured like a pic and laid down in LTM for a very long time, possibly forever

Flashbulb memory, ethics + research method of eoeoc p2

Sharot et al

Aim: to determine role of bio factors in flashbulb memories

Procedure:

• three years after 9/11

• 24 participants who were in nyc on the day

• participants were put into fmri scan and given word cues which they had to relate to either 9/11 or summer holidays (summer or septembr)

• brain activity observed while they recalled the event

• after, asked to rate memories for vividness, detail, confidence in accuracy, arousal

• also asked to write a description of their personal memories

Results:

• only half of participants actually reported fbms of the event

• those that did report fbms also reported they were closer to WTC on the day - they also had more specific details in their written memories

Flashbulb memory p3

• 9/11 - example of globa, emotionally significant event for ppl who wer ein nyc

• memories should be vivid, long-lasting, and deatailed - people who had significantly emotional experiences by being closer to WTC reported FBMs and their descriptiosn were richer in detail -→ supporrts idea that emotional intensity and personal relevance contribute to formation of FBMs

• sample recalled memory three years later - picture

EoEoC research method p1

quasi experiment

• type of experiment where participants are grouped based on a shared characteristic (e.g. race, gender, age)

• no random allocation

• do not show causation, can imply a casual relationship between iv and dv

• researcher is unable to manipulate iv (cannot randomly assign people to a culture, for example)

EoEoC research method p3

• grouped based on naturally occuring variable - proximity to WTC

• could not randomly choose participants

• does not show clear cause-and-effect relationship, but does imply casual link

• IV: participants proximity to 9/11 attacks

• DV: detail of FBMs reported by participants

EoEoC ethics p1

undue stress or harm

• potential psychological or physical risks that an experiment may pose on its participants

• can be because of deception or nature of procedure

• any stress that would be greater to a participant than in everyday life

• no changes to the patients mental health and physical health during or after experiment

• no lasting effects

EoEoC ethics p3

• asked to recall triggering, emotionally distressing, traumatic memories of terrorist attack

• use of emotionally charged cues and memory recall of a truamatic event → psychological stress

• no reported lasting effect, so likely that RtW was present

• stress induced would not be considered excessive for someone who had already processed the event over time

• might’ve caused undue harm