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Gluconeogenesis
Process in which new glucose molecules are synthesized from proteins and fats. Carried out by liver.
Metabolic Rate
The amount of energy (heat+work) released per unit time
Muscular activity, age, gender, body surface area, environmental temperature
What is your metabolic rate influenced by? (5 things)
Mechanical work
Type of work involving the use of proteins to generate movement (muscles, cilia)
Chemical work
Type of work involving the formation of chemical bonds (anabolism)
Transport work
Type of work involving the moving of molecules across membranes (active transport, endo/exocytosis)
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
The metabolic rate of a person who is awake, lying down, physically/mentally relaxed, and fasted for 12 hours. Roughly equal to the rate of oxygen consumption
Energy stored
Energy input-energy output=?
Energy output
Work performed+heat released=?
Positive energy balance
Energy input>energy output
Negative energy balance
Energy input
Absorptive state
3-4 hours following a meal, positive energy balance, energy stored
Postabsorptive state
between meals, negative energy balance, energy mobilized. Glucose sparing
Adipocytes/Adipose tissue
Cells that store fat (triglycerides). 20-30% body weight (normal). 75-80% total energy reserves
insulin, glucagon, epinephrine
Transitions between absorptive and post-absorptive states are regulated primarily by...(3 things)
Insulin
Promotes synthesis of energy storage molecules. Anabolic hormone. Increased release during absorptive state. Decrease during post-absorptive. Produced by beta cells in islets of Langerhans pancreas
Glucagon
Antagonist to insulin. Catabolic hormone. Decreased release during absorptive state. Increased during post-absorptive. Produced by alpha cells in pancreatic islets of Langerhans
Hyperglycemia
Fasting blood glucose >140mg/dL, indicative of diabetes mellitus
Hypoglycemia
Fasting blood glucose <60mg/dL, bad for CNS
Epinephrine
sympathetic nervous system product. suppresses insulin, stimulates glucagon. promotes post-absorptive processes. primarily important during stress reactions, energy for flight/fight
Type 1
Type of Diabetes that is insulin-dependent. juvenile onset, 5-10%
Type 2
Type of Diabetes that is insulin-independent, adult onset, 90-95%
Ketoacidosis, Hyperosmolar (non-ketotic) coma, Hypoglycemic coma
Acute effects of diabetes (3 things)
Ketoacidosis
decrease in blood pH due to buildup of acidic ketones. Direct result of hyperglycemia
increased
Hyperglycemia causes ______ urine output
Hyperosmolar (non-Ketotic) coma
coma caused by extreme hyperglycemia leading to increased blood osmolarity
Hypoglycemic coma
come caused by an accidental insulin overdose as part of diabetes treatment
Efferents
Signals AWAY from the brain
Somatic
Voluntary efferent signals, motor neurons to skeletal muscle
Autonomic
Involuntary efferent signals
Sympathetic
Autonomic efferent signals, neruons to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands
Parasympathetic
Autonomic efferent signals, enteric nervous system (neurons to GI tract)
Afferents
Signals TO the brain
Somatic senses
Afferent signals (skin, muscles, joint -pain)
Special senses
Afferent signals (hearing, vision, equilibrium, smell, taste)
Visceral senses
Afferent signals (internal - stomach fullness, blood pressure, pH)
Afferents, Interneurons, Efferents
Three types of Neurons
CNS
cell bodies often grouped in nuclei axons grouped in bundles or comissures (neuronal anatomy)
PNS
cell bodies often grouped in ganglia axons grouped together in nerves (neruonal anatomy)
Glial cells
non-neuronal system cells. Provide support (structural, chemical) to neurons. 90% of all cells in nervous system
Astrocytes
Type of glial cell (development, maintenance of extracellular environment)Ep
Ependymal
type of glial cell (lining of ventricles)
Microglia
type of glial cell (immune response)
Oligodendrocytes
type of glial cell (myelin for CNS)
Schwann cells
type of glial cell (myelin for PNS)
-70mV
Resting membrane potential of most cells (mV)
Concentration gradients, Relative permeability
2 things that determine the resting membrane potential
K+
most permeable ion under resting conditions
ionic current
the actual movement of ions across the membrane
graded potentials
small electrical signals (Sub-threshold), can be different sized, get smaller in magnitude with distance traveled
action potentials
larger electrical signals (above threshold), all the exact same size, does not increase with distance traveled
EPSP (Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential)
a depolarization that brings the post-synaptic cell closer to threshold
IPSP (Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential)
a hyperpolarization that pushes the post-synaptic potential further from the threshold
Temporal Summation
one cell stimulates another cell twice before the first response has had a chance to die down, two or more sub-threshold stimuli add up to allow the post-synaptic cell to reach threshold
Spatial summation
two or more cells send simultaneous sub-threshold stimuli to a cell that add up to get the post-synaptic cell above threshold
Phase 1
Action potential phase in which Na+ channel activation gates open
Phase 2
Action potential phase in which Na+ channel inactivation closes. K+ channel activation gates open
Phase 3
Action potential phase in which K+ channel activation gates close (Na+ channel inactivation gates open. Na+ channel activation gates close)
Absolute refractory period
period of time following action potential in which no stimulus of any strength can generate another action potential
Relative refractory period
period of time following action potential in which another action potential can be generated, but a much stronger stimulus must be used
Electrical synapses
gap junctions, ions and second messengers flow directly from one cell to another, can be bidirectional, act to synchronize electrical activity
Chemical synapses
send chemicals (neurotransmitters) across synaptic cleft, unidirectional
Ionotropic
type of postsynaptic response that is mediated by channel-linked receptors, fast
Metabotropic
type of postsynaptic response that is mediated by G-protein coupled receptors, slow
Excitatory synapses
Synapses in which PSP is depolarizing, brings membrane potential closer to AP threshold
Inhibitory synapes
synapses in which PSP brings membrane potential away from AP threshold
LTP: Long-Term Potentation
process by which cells become more efficient at communication via synaptic transmission
Nondeclaritive (implicit)
memory of simple skills, how to do things
Declarative (explicit)
memory of things that can be verbalized
Electoencephalogram (EEG)
brain waves collected by external electrodes on the scalp
Broca's aphasia
involves slow, poorly articulated speech, there is no impairment in understanding, controls motor aspects of speech
Wernicke's Aphasia
involves production of rapid speech with no meaning, language (spoken and written) comprehension is destoryed, controls understanding of words
Glycogenolysis
Which process will result in a decrease in glycogen levels
Glycolysis
The process of gluconeogenesis is the exact opposite of which process
Positive
When energy input exceeds energy output, the body is in a state of _____ energy balance
Post-absorptive
In which state do most cells metabolize proteins and fats
Insulin
which hormone causes the body to transition to the absorptive state
Hypoglycemia
A person with damaged alpha cells will most likely have which condition
insulin
which hormone decreases glycogenolysis
decrease
increasing insulin levels will _____ urine output
hypoglycemic coma
An overdose of insulin may result in which condition
efferent
smooth muscle will be controlled by the brain through _____ fibers
ganglia
cell bodies in the PNS are called
ependymal cells
which type of glial cell produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
K+
which ion has more 'leak' channels
smaller
as the membrane potential approaches the equilibrium potential farther from threshold would be...
hyperpolarization
a post-synaptic potential that moves the membrane potential farther from threshold would be......
1
temporal summatin involves how many pre-synaptic inputs
Ek
during the falling phase of an actoin potential, the membrane potential moves toward.....
closed
at rest, the activation gate for most voltage-gated Na+ channels is
already open OR inactivated
during the absolute refractory period, all voltage-gated Na+ channels are
more frequent
a larger stimulus will result in _____ _____ action potentials
unidirectional
chemical synapses are
Ca++
which ion is directly responsible for neurotransmitter release at a synapse
EPSP
binding of acetylcholine to nicotinic recpetors will produce
muscarinic
which type of receptors are blocked by atropine
Cl-
inhibitory synapses in the PNS use which ion
nitric oxide
which molecule results in longer-lasting neurotransmitter release during LTP
nondeclaritive
which type of memory is NOT usually affected in amnesia patients
caffeine
which of these is an adenosine receptor antagonist
Note 
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