Humanistic theories of personality

Q: When and why did humanistic approaches to personality emerge?

A: During the 1950s–1960s as an alternative to psychoanalysis and behaviourism, focusing on distinctly human aspects of personality, meaning, and self-actualisation rather than observable behaviour or unconscious drives.

Q: What is the difference between the true self and the false self according to Rogers?

A: True self: core, authentic being.
False self: mask developed to gain positive regard from others, often replacing the true self.

Q: What are conditions of worth?

A: Internalised expectations of others that pressure people to behave in certain ways, often leading them to distort their true self to gain approval.

Q: How does Rogers explain conflict between self-concept and ideal self?

A: When the self-concept diverges from the ideal self, individuals may distort behaviour or perception to avoid psychological discomfort. Example: choosing a career to satisfy parents instead of personal passion.

Q: What is the actualising tendency in Rogers’ theory?

A: The primary human motivation to fulfil one’s full range of needs and express the true self, from basic survival to personal growth.

Q: How can needs for positive regard oppose the actualising tendency?

A: The desire for approval from others can force people to distort their self and abandon true inclinations, limiting personal growth.

Q: How does existentialism approach personality?

A: It focuses on subjective existence, human freedom, and the individual’s responsibility to create their own meaning in life, rather than assuming fixed traits or essence.

Q: What was Sartre’s view on human nature and personality?

A: Humans have no fixed nature and must create themselves; personality is not static but ever-changing, and claiming a fixed personality is self-delusion.

Q: What paradox do humans face according to existential philosophy?

A: We must commit to values, ideals, and actions to create meaning, while knowing that life is finite and meaning is self-imposed, not intrinsic.

Q: What are the key concerns of existential psychology?

• Importance of subjective experience

• Human quest for meaning in life

• Dangers of losing touch with true feelings

• Hazards of seeing oneself as thing-like rather than a creative, ever-forming agent

Q: What is existential dread?

A: The recognition that life has no absolute value or meaning and that death is inevitable, often leading humans to deny mortality and the meaninglessness behind values.

Q: How do cultural beliefs help humans cope with mortality according to Becker?

A: Cultural beliefs and values symbolically deny death, providing hope, self-esteem, and protection against death anxiety.

Q: What is the effect of mortality salience on behaviour?

A: When death is made salient, people cling more strongly to cultural norms, which can influence behaviour (e.g., judges being more punitive, increased charitable behaviour).

Q: How do close relationships affect death anxiety?

A: People seek close relationships when mortality is salient, and these relationships can buffer against the anxiety of death.

Q: How does self-esteem interact with death anxiety?

A: High self-esteem protects against death anxiety, while threats to self-esteem can increase awareness and fear of mortality.

Q: How is death anxiety assessed in research?

• Quantitative methods: Self-report questionnaires measuring fears/phobias of death

• Qualitative methods: Interviews to explore death anxieties for personal growth and therapy

Q: What is a key goal of existential psychotherapy?

A: To confront patients with existential realities (e.g., death, freedom) and encourage personal growth and empowerment through awareness and choice.

Q: What is the most important contribution of humanistic psychology to the study of personality?

A: Its focus on how humans strive to find meaning in life, especially during times of personal crisis, loss, or cultural change.

Q: How does humanistic psychology differ from other approaches in understanding personality?

A: It emphasizes a person’s subjective view of reality and their efforts to overcome obstacles and achieve personal growth.

Q: How has humanistic psychology influenced modern psychology?

A: It laid the foundation for positive psychology, focusing on human strengths, well-being, and self-actualization.

Q: What is a key limitation of humanistic theories?

A: They do not offer a comprehensive theory of personality, cognition, emotion, behaviour, or psychological disorders like psychodynamic or cognitive–social theories do.

Q: Why is humanistic psychology criticized for its research approach?

A: It has few testable hypotheses and often rejects empirical methods, making concepts like “personal growth” difficult to measure.

Q: How is the humanistic view of human nature limited?

A: Critics argue it is idealistic and may not be attainable in reality, focusing on what humans could be rather than what they actually are.